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Short Message Service (SMS)language ortextese[a] is the abbreviated language andslang commonly used in the late 1990s and early 2000s with mobile phonetext messaging, and occasionally throughInternet-based communication such asemail andinstant messaging.[1] Many call the words used in texting "textisms" or "internet slang."
Features of early mobile phone messaging encouraged users to use abbreviations.2G technology made text entry difficult, requiring multiple key presses on a small keypad to generate each letter, and messages were generally limited to 160bytes (or 1280bits). Additionally, SMS language made text messages quicker to type, while also avoiding additional charges from mobile network providers for lengthy messages exceeding 160 characters.
SMS language is similar to telegraphs' language where charges were by the word. It seeks to use the fewest letters to produce ultra-concise words and sentiments[2] in dealing with the space, time, and cost constraints oftext messaging. It follows from how early SMS permitted only 160 characters and that carriers began charging a small fee for each message sent (and sometimes received). Together with the difficulty and inefficiency in creating messages, it led the desire for a more economical language for the new medium.[3]
SMS language also shares some of these characteristics with Internet slang andTelex speak, as it evolved alongside the use of shorthand in Internetchat rooms. Likewise, such a change sought to accommodate the small number of characters allowed per message, and to increase convenience for the time-consuming and often smallkeyboards on mobile phones. Similarelliptical styles of writing can be traced to the days oftelegraphese 120 years back, when telegraph operators were reported to use abbreviations similar to modern text when chatting amongst themselves in between the sending of official messages.[4] Faramerz Dabhoiwala wrote inThe Guardian in 2016: "modern usages that horrifylinguistic purists in fact have deep historical roots. 'OMG' was used by a septuagenarian naval hero, admiral of the fleetJohn Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher in a letter toWinston Churchill, in 1917".[5][6]
In general, SMS language thus permits the sender to type less and communicate more quickly than one could without such shortcuts. One example is the use of "tmr" instead of "tomorrow". Nevertheless, there are no standard rules for the creation and use of SMS languages. Any word may be shortened (for example, "text" to "txt"). Words can also be combined with numbers to make them shorter (for example, "later" to "l8r"), using the numeral "8" for itshomophonic quality.[7]
Some may view SMS language to be a dialect of theEnglish language,[2] that is a dialect strongly if not completely derivative of the English language. This may not be so. Such generalization may have risen from the fact that mobile phones had only been able to support a limited number of default languages in the early stages of its conception and distribution.[citation needed]
Amobile operating system (OS) such asSymbian and language packs enable the linguistic localization of products that are equipped with such interfaces, where the final Symbian release (Symbian Belle) supported the scripts andorthographies of over 48 languages and dialects, though such provisions are by no means fully comprehensive as to the languages used by users all over the world.[citation needed]
Nevertheless, various factors contribute as additional constraints to the use of non-English languages and scripts in SMS. This motivates theanglicization of such languages, especially those using non-Latin orthographies (i.e. not using Latin alphabets) following for instance, the even more limited message lengths involved when using for example,Cyrillic orGreek letters.[8] On the other side, researcher Gillian Perrett observes the de-anglicization[9] of the English language following its use and incorporation into non-English linguistic contexts.
As such, on top of the measures taken to minimize space, time and cost constraints in SMS language, further constraints upon the varied nature and characteristics of languages worldwide add to the distinct properties and style of SMS language(s).
The primary motivation for the creation and use of SMS language was to convey a comprehensible message using the fewest characters possible. This was for two reasons: first of all, telecommunication companies limited the number of characters per SMS and charged the user per SMS sent. To keep costs down, users had to find a way of being concise while still communicating the desired message. Secondly, typing on a phone is normally slower than with a keyboard, and capitalization is even slower. As a result, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization are largely ignored.
The advent oftouchscreen phones with large screens, swipe-basedinput methods and increasingly advancedautocomplete andspelling suggestion functionality, as well as the increasing popularity of free-to-useinstant messaging systems likeWhatsApp over pay-per-message SMS[10] has decreased the need to use SMS language.
Observations and classifications as to the linguistic and stylistic properties of SMS language have been made and proposed by Crispin Thurlow,[11] López Rúa,[12] and David Crystal.[8] Although they are by no means exhaustive, some of these properties involve the use of:
There are many examples of words or phrases that share the same abbreviations (e.g.,lol could meanlaugh out loud,lots of love, orlittle old lady, andcryn could meancrayon orcryin(g)).[12]
For words that have no common abbreviation, users most commonlyremove the vowels from a word, and the reader is required to interpret a string of consonants by re-adding the vowels (e.g.,dictionary becomesdctnry andkeyboard becomeskybrd). Omission of words, especially function words (e.g., determiners like "a" and "the") are also employed as part of the effort to overcome time and space constraints.[13]
The advent ofpredictive text input andsmartphones featuring fullQWERTY keyboards may contribute to a reduction in the use of shortenings in SMS language.[citation needed]
Recipients may have to interpret the abbreviated words depending on the context in which they are being used. For instance, should someone usettyl, lol they may meantalk to you later, lots of love as opposed totalk to you later, laugh out loud. In another instance, if someone were to useomg, lol they may meanoh my god, laugh out loud as opposed tooh my god, lots of love.
Therefore, context is crucial when interpretingtextese, and it is precisely this shortfall that critics cite as a reason not to use it (although the English language in general, like many otherlanguages, has many words that have different meanings in different contexts).
SMS language does not always obey or follow standardgrammar, and additionally the words used are not usually found in standard dictionaries or recognized bylanguage academies.
A 2024 study found that using abbreviations in texting makes the sender seem less sincere, and leads to fewer replies.[14]
The feature of "reactive tokens" that is ubiquitous inInternet Relay Chat (IRC), is also commonly found in SMS language. Reactive tokens include phrases or words like "yeah I know", which signifies a reaction to a previous message. In SMS language, however, the difference is that many words are shortened unlike in spoken speech.[15]
Source:[8]
Some tokens of the SMS language can be likened to arebus, using pictures and single letters or numbers to represent whole words (e.g., "i <3 u", which uses the pictogram of a heart forlove, and the letteru replacesyou).
The dialect has a fewhieroglyphs (codes comprehensible to initiates) and a range of face symbols.[16]
Prosodic features in SMS language aim to provide added semantic and syntactic information and context from which recipients can use to deduce a more contextually relevant and accurate interpretation. These may aim to convey the textual equivalent of verbal prosodic features such as facial expression and tone of voice.[17][18] Indeed, even though SMS language exists in the format of written text, it closely resembles normal speech in that it does not have a complicated structure and that its meaning is greatly contextualised.
In the case of capitalization in SMS language, there are three scenarios:[19]
Most SMS messages have done away with capitalization. Use of capitalizations on the first word of a message may in fact, not be intentional, and may likely be due to the default capitalization setting of devices. Capitalization too may encode prosodic elements, where copious use may signify the textual equivalent of raised voice to indicate heightened emotion.[17]
Just as body language and facial expressions can alter how speech is perceived, emoji and emoticons can alter the meaning of a text message, the difference being that the real tone of the SMS sender is less easily discerned merely by the emoticon. Using a smiling face can be perceived as being sarcastic rather than happy, thus the reader has to decide which it is by looking at the whole message.[20]
Use of punctuation and capitalization to form emoticons distracts from the more traditional function of such features and symbols. Nevertheless, uses do differ across individuals and cultures. For example, overpunctuation may simply be used to communicate paralinguistic aspects of communication without the need to create an emotion from it like so: "Hello!!!!".[13]
While vowels and punctuation of words in SMS language are generally omitted,David Crystal observes that apostrophes occur unusually frequently. He cites an American study of 544 messages, where the occurrence of apostrophes in SMS language is approximately 35 percent.[8] This is unexpected, seeing that it is a hassle to input an apostrophe in a text message with the multiple steps involved. The use of apostrophes cannot be attributed to users attempting to disambiguate words that might otherwise be misunderstood without it.
There are few cases in English where leaving out the apostrophe causes misunderstanding of the message. For example, "we're" without the apostrophe could be misread as "were". Even so, these are mostly understood correctly despite being ambiguous, as readers can rely on other cues such as part of sentence and context where the word appears to decide what the word should be. For many other words like "Im" and "Shes", there is no ambiguity. Since users don't need to use apostrophes to ensure that their message is understood accurately, this phenomenon may in part be attributed to texters wanting to maintain clarity so that the message can be more easily understood in a shorter amount of time.[8] The widespread mobile phone auto-correct feature contributes to the frequency of the apostrophe in SMS messages, since, even without user awareness, it will insert an apostrophe in many common words, such as "I'm", "I'll", and "I'd".
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Users may also use spellings that reflect their illocutionary force and intention rather than using the standard spelling. For example, the use of "haha" to signify "standard" laughter, and "muahaha" to encode perhaps more raucous or evil sound of laughter.[15]
In this, regional variations in spelling can also be observed. As such, SMS language, with its intergroup variations, also serves as an identity marker.[18]
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SMS language has yet to be accepted as a conventional and stable form, either as a dialect or as a language. As a result, (as much as it is also a consequence), notablelexicographical efforts and publications (e.g., dictionaries) dealing specifically with SMS language have yet to emerge.[21] Some experts have suggested that the usage of "ungrammatical" text message slang has enabled SMS to become a part of "normal language" for many children.[citation needed]
Many informal attempts at documenting SMS have been done. For example, service providerVodacom provides its clients with an SMS dictionary as a supplement to their cell phone purchase.[21] Vodacom provides lists of abbreviations and acronyms with their meanings in its web site.[22][21]
Many other efforts have been made to provide SMS dictionaries on the Internet. Usually an alphabetical list of "words" used in SMS language is provided, along with their intended meanings.[23][24] Text messages can also be "translated" to standard language on certain web sites as well, although the "translations" are not always universally accepted.[25]
Many people are likely to use these abbreviations in lower case letters. Many of the abbreviations were used previously on the Internet,bulletin boards orminicom.
| Words in full | Abbreviations or SMS language |
|---|---|
| Am I Right | AIR or Amirite[26] |
| As Far As I Know | AFAIK[22] |
| As Soon As Possible | ASAP[22] |
| At | @[22] |
| At The Moment | ATM[22] |
| ...as fuck | AF[27] |
| Away From Keyboard | AFK[22] |
| Baby | BB |
| Babygirl | BBG |
| Be Back Later | BBL[28] |
| Be Right Back | BRB[29] |
| Because | B/C or BCS or BC[30] |
| Best Friend Boyfriend | BF[30] |
| Best Friend Forever Boyfriend Forever | BFF[30] |
| Between | B/W |
| Broken Heart | </3[citation needed] |
| By The Way | BTW[22] |
| Bye For Now | BFN[30] |
| Chicks | CHX[22] |
| Don't worry | DW |
| For fuck's sake | FFS |
| For Real | FR |
| For The Win | FTW[22] |
| For Your Information | FYI[30] |
| Fuck You Mean | FYM |
| Get The Fuck Out | GTFO[30] |
| Girlfriend | GF[30] |
| Good Game | GG[31] (often sarcastic) |
| Good night/Good morning | GN[32]/GM[33][34] |
| Haha | hh[22] |
| Have A Nice Day | HAND[22] |
| How I feel when | HIFW[35] |
| Homegirl | hg |
| I don't care | IDC[22] |
| I Don't Know | IDK[30] |
| I Hate You | IH8U[30] |
| I have no idea | IHNI[22] |
| I Know, Right? | IKR[36] |
| I Love You | ILU or ILY[30] |
| I Miss You | IMY[37] |
| I swear to god | ISTG |
| In Real Life | IRL[22] |
| If I Remember Correctly | IIRC[38] |
| In My Humble/Honest Opinion | IMHO[30] |
| In My Opinion | IMO[30] |
| Not | != |
| Just Kidding | JK[30] |
| Just so you know | JSYK[22] |
| Keep It Simple, Stupid | KISS[22] |
| Later (often as avalediction) | l8r[39] |
| Laugh(ing) My Ass Off | LMAO[40] |
| Laugh(ing) Out Loud | LOL[40] |
| Love | <3[22] |
| Loving The Weather Today | LTWT or LWT or LW[22] |
| Message | MSG[30] |
| Nevermind/No Worries Mate | NVM |
| No problem | NP[22] |
| Not a Number | NaN[41][42] |
| Oh My Gosh/God/Goodness | OMG[22] |
| On god | ONG |
| On The Way | OTW[30] |
| Original Poster, Overpowered | OP[43] |
| Please | PLZ or PLS[30] |
| Read the fucking manual | RTFM |
| Rolling on the Floor Laughing | ROFL or ROTFL[22] |
| Sealed With a Kiss | SWAK[22] |
| See You | CU[22] or CYA |
| See You Later | CUL8R[30] |
| Shaking My Head (disapproval/frustration) | SMH[30] |
| Shut The Fuck Up | STFU[30] |
| Significant Other | SO[30] |
| So What's Your Problem? | SWYP[22] |
| Stop What You're Doing | SWYD[22] |
| Such A Laugh | SAL[22] |
| Talk To You Later | TTYL[30] |
| Tears in My Eyes | TIME[22] |
| Thanks | THNX or THX[22] or TKS |
| Thanks, Thank you | THNX, THANKU, THANQ, TKS, TY |
| To Be Announced | TBA[44] |
| Too Long; Didn't Read | TL;DR, TLDR or TL DR[45] |
| Too Much Information | TMI[46] |
| You Only Live Once | YOLO[22] |
| You're on Your Own | YOYO[22] |
| What Are You Doing | WYD[22] |
| What Do You Mean | WDYM[22] |
| What The Fuck | WTF[30] |
| What The Hell | WTH[30] |
| Whatever | Whatevs or W/E or WE[22] |
| Where Are You At | WYA[22] |
| Works For Me | WFM[41] |
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Entire sounds within words would often be replaced by a letter or digit that would produce a similar sound when read by itself:[citation needed]
| Word/Syllable/Phoneme | Letter/Digit | Example usage |
|---|---|---|
| be | b | Be or not to be becomesb||!=2b |
| see orsea | c | See you later becomesCU l8r |
| okay | k‡ (or kk†) | In example sentenceDo you want an ice cream? thek may be used as a smuggish and/or disrespecting response |
| enjoy or end | n | enjoy becomesnjoy andend becomesnd |
| oh | o | oh my god becomesomg |
| are | R | In a sentenceHRU? meaningHow are you? theR becomesare |
| you | U | In a sentence?RU doing meaningWhat are you doing theU becomesyou |
| why | Y | In a sentenceY R U like this? meaningWhy are you like this? theY becomesWhy |
| won orone | 1§ | anyone becomesany1 orne1 andno one becomesno1 |
| to,too ortwo | 2§ | today becomes2day andtune becomes2ne |
| for orfour | 4§ | forget becomes4get andafford becomesa4d |
| ate | 8§ | great becomesgr8 andhate becomesh8 |
| What? orHuh orQuestion | ? | In a sentence?4U meaningQuestions for you the? becomesQuestion |
| Doubt | X | Originated fromL.A. Noirememe[47] |
| Expresses shock | ! | Used as a reaction to a message |
^‡ k is sometimes considered passive aggressive
^† kk can also signal the end of a conversation[citation needed]
^§ using numbers phonetically is often intended to be sarcastic[citation needed]
^ The exclamation mark symbol! is scalable depending on the amount of shock, the most common use is!!!
Combinations can shorten single or multiple words:
| Words | SMS |
|---|---|
| your | ur |
| you are | u r |
| wonderful | 1drfl§ |
| before | b4§ |
| easy | ez |
| someone | sum1§ |
| see you | cu or cya |
| for you | 4u§ |
| tomorrow | 2mro§, 2mo§, tmr, or tmrw |
In one American study, researchers found that less than 20% of messages used SMS language. Looking at his own texting history, the study's author, linguistDavid Crystal, said that just 10% of his messages used SMS language.[48]
According to research done by Dr.Nenagh Kemp of theUniversity of Tasmania, the evolution oftextese is inherently coupled to a strong grasp of grammar and phonetics.[49]
David Crystal has countered the claims that SMS has a deleterious effect on language with numerous scholarly studies. The findings are summarized in his bookTxtng: the Gr8 Db8.In his book, Crystal argues that:
He further observes that this is by no means a cause for bad spelling, where in fact, texting may lead to an improvement in the literacy of the user.[8][50]
There are others who feel that the claims of SMS language being detrimental to English language proficiency are overrated. A study of the written work of 100 students by Freudenberg found that the actual amount of use of SMS language found in the written work was not very significant. Some features of SMS language such as the use of emoticons was not observed in any of the written work by the students. Of all the errors found, quite a substantial amount cannot be attributed to use of SMS language. These included errors that appeared before the advent of SMS language.[13]
There are also views that SMS language has little or no effect on grammar.[51] Proponents of this view feel that SMS language is merely another language, and since learning a new language does not affect students' proficiency in English grammar, it cannot be said that SMS language can affect their grammar. With proper instruction, students should be able to distinguish between slang, SMS language and standard English and use them in their appropriate contexts.[51]
According to a study, though SMS language is faster to write, more time is needed to read it compared to conventional English.[52]
Although various other research supports the use of SMS language, the popular notion that text messaging is damaging to the linguistic development of young people persists and many view it as a corruption of the standard form of language.[53]
Welsh journalist and television reporterJohn Humphrys has criticized SMS language as "wrecking our language". The author citesambiguity as one problem posed, illustrating with examples such as "lol", which may either be interpreted to mean "laughing out loud", "lots of love", and "little old lady" depending on the context in which it is being used. Ambiguous words and statements have always been present within languages. In English for example, the word "duck" can have more than one meaning. It could be referring to either the bird or the action, and such words are usually disambiguated by looking at the context in which it was written.[54]
The proliferation of SMS language has been criticized for causing the deterioration of English language proficiency and its rich heritage. Opponents of SMS language feel that it undermines the properties of the English language that have lasted throughout its long history. Furthermore, words within the SMS language that are very similar to their English-language counterparts can be confused by young users as the actual English spelling and can therefore increase the prevalence of spelling mistakes.[55]
Use of SMS language in schools tended to be seen as negative.[citation needed] There have been media reports of children using SMS language in school essays.[56] TheNew Zealand Qualifications Authority denied press reports that they had authorized the use of text abbreviations in exam answers, a spokesperson said "there had been no change to guidelines and there was no specific policy about text language."[57]
A study performed by Cingel and Sundar (2012) investigated the relationship between the use of SMS language and grammar in adolescents.[58] By using a self-report survey where the 228 middle school participants would answer questions regarding their texting behaviors, as well as a ten minute in-class grammar assessment, the study gathered information on how the amount of time a student spent online affected their writing.[58] Cingel and Sundar hypothesized that the more text messages a student received and sent, the more grammar 'adaptations' their writing would contain.[58] The results reflected a negative relationship between text messaging and adolescent grammar skills. They concluded that the more time youth spend on technology, the more they become acquainted with "techspeak" or "textese," and thus allow their approach to grammar and academic writing to change.[58]
According to Sean Ó Cadhain, abbreviations and acronyms elicits a sense of group identity as users must be familiar with the lingo of their group to be able to comprehend the SMS language used within the group.[59] The ability to use and understand these language short forms that are unique to each group indicates that an individual is part of the group, forging a group identity that excludes outsiders. SMS language is thus thought to be the "secret code of the youth" by some.[59] The fact that sometimes, shortened forms are used for reasons other than space constraints can be seen as interlocutors trying to establish solidarity with each other.[59]
According to Norwegian researcherRichard Ling, there are differences in the SMS language of females and males.[19] The lexical, morphological and syntactic choices of male and female SMS users[15] suggested to Ling that women are more "adroit"[b] and more "literary" texters.[8]Richard Ling observes:
Circa 2005, advertisements have been increasingly influenced by SMS language. The longer the message in the advertisement, the less the impression it will leave. Hence, short messages that are more catchy, cost and space-saving are more commonly used.[21] The visual effect elicited by SMS language also lends a feeling of novelty that helps to make the advertisement more memorable. For example, an advertisement of a book uses the SMS language:EAT RIGHT 4 YOUR TYPE.[21]
Companies focusing on the teen market have the tendency to make use of SMS language in their advertising to capture the attention of their target audience.[61] Since teenagers tend to be the ones using SMS language, they are able to relate to advertisements that use SMS language.Unilever's advertisement for their novel range of deodorant for teenage girls uses the phrase "OMG! Moments." David Lang, president of the team who created the advertisement commented that they desired to bring across the impression that they identify with youth culture and discourse.[61]
Many other companies like McDonald's have also attempted to pursue the teenage market by using SMS language abbreviations in their commercials. McDonald's in Korea has an online video commercial which concludes with: "r u ready?".[61]
Telegraph operators had their own acronyms, greeting each other with GM instead of good morning
There is also youthful crowing over those who write 'HIFW when'. HIFW is short for 'how I feel when'....
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