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Sōtō Zen or theSōtō school (曹洞宗,Sōtō-shū) is the largest of the three traditional sects ofZen inJapanese Buddhism (the others beingRinzai andŌbaku). It is the Japanese line of the ChineseCaodong school,[1] which was founded during theTang dynasty byDongshan Liangjie. It emphasizesShikantaza, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference.
The Japanese brand of the sect was imported in the 13th century byDōgen Zenji, who studiedCaodong Buddhism (Chinese:曹洞宗;pinyin:Cáodòng Zōng) abroad in China. Dōgen is remembered today as the ancestor of Sōtō Zen in Japan along withKeizan Jōkin.[2][3]
With about 14,000 temples, Sōtō is one of the largest Japanese Buddhist organizations.[4][a] Sōtō Zen is now also popular in the West, and in 1996 priests of the Sōtō Zen tradition formed theSoto Zen Buddhist Association based in North America.
The original Chinese version of Sōtō-shū, i.e. theCaodong-school (曹洞宗) was established by the Tang dynasty monkDongshan Liangjie (洞山良价 Ja: Tōzan Ryōkai) in the ninth century.
One prevalent view is that the sect's name was originally formed by taking one character each from the names of Dongshan and his discipleCaoshan Benji (曹山本寂,Tōzan Ryōkai), and was originally called Dongcao sect (with the characters in transposed order).[5] However, to paraphrase theDongshan Yulu (《洞山語録》, "Record of the Dialogues of Dongshan"), the sect's name denotes 'colleagues (曹) of the teachings above the caves (洞)' who together follow the "black wind (teachings of Taoism?)"[citation needed] and admire the masters of various sects.[5][b]
Perhaps more significantly for the Japanese brand of this sect,Dōgen among others advocated the reinterpretation that the "Cao" represents not Caoshan, but rather "Huineng of Caoxi temple"Sōkei Enō (曹渓慧能); Ch.曹溪慧能). The branch that was founded by Caoshan died off, and Dōgen was a student of the other branch that survived in China.[5]
A precursor to the sect isShitou Xiqian (Ch.石頭希遷,c. 700 – c. 790),[6] the attributed author of the poemSandokai, which formed the basis ofSong of the Precious Mirror Samadhi ofDongshan Liangjie (Jp. Tōzan Ryōkai) and the teaching of theFive Ranks.[7][8]
Starting withDōgen, a partial lineage chart is as follows:
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The Caodong-teachings were brought to Japan in 1227, whenDōgen returned to Japan after studyingCh'an in China and settled atKennin-ji inKyoto. Dōgen had receivedDharma transmission fromTiantong Rujing at Qìngdé Temple, whereHongzhi Zhengjue once was abbot. Hongzhi's writings on "silent illumination" had greatly influenced Dōgen's own conception ofshikantaza.[10]
Dōgen did return from China with variouskōan anthologies and other texts, contributing to the transmission of the koan tradition to Japan.[11] In the first works he wrote he emphasised the practice of zazen, which brought him into trouble at Kennin-ji:
This assertion of the primacy of Zen aroused the anger of the Enryaku-ji monks, who succeeded in driving Dōgen from theKennin-ji where he had settled after his return to the capital.[12]
In 1243 Dōgen foundedEihei-ji,[13] one of the two head temples of Sōtō-shū today, choosing...
... to create new monastic institutions based on the Chinese model and risk incurring the open hostility and opposition of the established schools.[14]
Daily routine was copied from Chinese practices, which went back to the Indian tradition:
The elements of Sōtō practice that contributed most to the success of the school in medieval Japan were precisely the generic Buddhist monastic practices inherited from Sung China, and ultimately from India. The Sōtō Zen style of group meditation on long platforms in a sangha hall, where the monks also took meals and slept at night, was the same as that prescribed in Indian Vinaya texts. The etiquette followed in Sōtō monasteries can also be traced back to the Indian Vinaya.[14]
Dōgen was succeeded around 1236[15] by his discipleKoun Ejō (1198–1280),[16] who originally was a member of theDaruma school of Nōnin, but joined Dōgen in 1229.[17] Ejō started his Buddhist studies at Mount Hiei, the center of Tendai studies. Following his stay there he studiedPure Land Buddhism underShōkū, whereafter he joined theDaruma school of Nōnin by then led by Kakuan.,[18] and later Dōgen's community in 1234.
Ejō composed a journal in colloquial Japanese called theShōbōgenzō Zuimonki (正法眼蔵随聞記, "The Treasury of the True Dharma Eye: Record of Things Heard"), or simplyZuimonki for short, recollecting conversations he had with Dōgen. The recorded conversations emphasize the primacy of an austereZen Buddhism, and resisted efforts from outside to incorporate other practices such as building Buddhist statues, or erecting new temples, and contrast with a different journal, theGoyuigon Kiroku (御遺言記録, "Record of Final Words [of the founder of Eiheiji]"), an apocryphal journal attributed toGikai.[19]
A large group from the Daruma-school under the leadership of Ekan joined the Dogen-school in 1241,[17] after severe conflicts with the Tendai and Rinzai schools.[18] Among this group wereGikai, Gien andGiin, who were to become influential members of Dōgen's school.[17]
After the death of Ejō, a controversy called thesandai sōron occurred. In 1267 Ejō retired as Abbot of Eihei-ji, giving way to Gikai, who was already favored by Dogen. Gikai too originally was a member of the Daruma school, but joined Dōgen's school in 1241, together with a group from the Nōnin school led by Ekan. Gikai introduced esoteric elements into the practice:
[W]ith the premature death of Dōgen the group lost its focus and internal conflicts led to a split. Dōgen's followers soon introduced such esoteric elements as prayers and incantations into the teaching.[13]
Opposition arose, and in 1272 Ejō resumed the position of abbot. After his death in 1280, Gikai became abbot again, strengthened by the support of the military for magical practices.[20] Opposition arose again, and Gikai was forced to leave Eihei-ji, and exiled toKaga Province, Daijō-ji (inIshikawa Prefecture). He was succeeded by Gien, who was first trained in the Daruma-school ofNōnin. His supporters designated him as the third abbot, rejecting the legitimacy of Gikai.
The second most important figure in Sōtō,Keizan, belonged to this dissident branch.[21] Keizan received ordination from Ejō when he was, twelve years old, shortly before Ejō's death[22] When he was seventeen he went on a pilgrimage for three years throughout Japan. During this period, he studiedRinzai,Shingon andTendai. After returning to Daijō-ji, Keizan received dharma transmission from Gikai in 1294, and established Joman-ji.[22] In 1303 Gikai appointed Keizan as abbot of Daijō-ji,[23] a position he maintained until 1311.[24]
Keizan enlarged the Shingon-temple Yōkō-ji in Ishikawa prefecture, turning it into a Zen monastery in 1312.[24] Thereafter he inherited the Shingon temple Shogaku-ji in 1322, renaming itSōji-ji, which was recognized as an official monastery.[25] In 1324 he putGasan Jōseki in charge of Sojo-ji, and returned to Yōkō-ji.[25] Yōko-ji was Keizan's main temple, but Sōji-ji thrived better, thanks to Gasan Jōseki[26]
Though today Dōgen is referred as the founder of Sōtō, for a long period Sōtō history recognized several important ancestors, next to Dōgen.[27] In 1877 the heads of the Sōtō community acknowledged Keizan for a brief period as the overall founder of the Sōtō sect.[28]
Dogen is known as the "koso", where Keizan is known as the "taiso";
Both terms mean the original ancestor, that is, the founder of Japanese Sōtō Zen tradition.[29]
At the end of the Kamakura period, Dōgen's school centered around four centers, namely Eihei-ji, Daijo-ji monastery, and the temples Yoko-ji andSōji-ji. Sōji-ji became the most influential center of the Dōgen school.[24]
During theMuromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by theshōgun. But Soto too spread out over Japan.
Gasan Jōseki (1275–1365)[30] and Meiho Sotetsu were Keizan's most prominent students.[30]
Gasan too started his Buddhist studies at mount Hiei.[30] He became head of Soji-ji in 1324.[31] Gasan adopted theFive Ranks ofTung-shan as a fit vehicle to explain the Mahayana teachings.[32]
Sotetsu became head of Yoko-ji in 1325. Initially his influence soon grew. In 1337 Sotetsu was appointed as abbot of Daijo-ji.
After aperiod of war Japan was re-united in theAzuchi–Momoyama period. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. The power of Buddhism decreased during the Tokugawa period. Buddhism had become a strong political and military force in Japan and was seen as a threat by the ruling clan. Measures were taken to control the Buddhist organisations, and to limit their power and influence.[33] The temple hierarchy system was centralized and unified.[33]
Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world.[34] New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was theŌbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during theEdo period byIngen, a Chinese monk.[35] The presence of these Chinese monks also influenced the existing Zen-schools, spreading new ideas about monastic discipline and the rules for dharma transmission.[36]
The Sōtō school started to place a growing emphasis on textual authority. In 1615 thebakufu declared that "Eheiji's standards (kakun) must be the rule for all Sōtō monks".[37] In time this came to mean all the writings of Dōgen, which thereby became the normative source for the doctrines and organisation of the Sōtō school.[37]
A key factor in this growing emphasis on Dogen was Manzan's appeal to change the rules fordharma transmission, based on arguments derived from the Shōbōgenzō.[37] From its beginnings, Sōtō-shū has laid a strong emphasis on the right lineage and dharma transmission.[35] In time, dharma transmission became synonymous with the transmission of temple ownership.[38] When an abbot changed position, becoming abbot of another temple, he also had to discard his lineage and adopt the lineage of his new temple.[2] This was changed by Manzan Dokahu (1636–1714), a Sōtō reformer, who:
[P]ropagated the view that Dharma transmission was dependent on personal initiation between a Master and disciple rather than on the disciple's enlightenment. He maintained this view in the face of strong opposition, citing as authority the towering figure of Japanese Zen, Dōgen ... This became and continues to this day to be the official Sōtō Zen view.[39]
Dōgen scholarship came to a central position in the Sōtō sect with the writings ofMenzan Zuihō (1683–1769), who wrote over a hundred works, including many commentaries on Dōgen's major texts and analysis of his doctrines. Menzan promoted reforms of monastic regulations and practice, based on his reading of Dōgen.
Another reformation was implemented byGentō Sokuchū (1729–1807), the 11th abbot ofEihei-ji, who tried to purify the Sōtō school, de-emphasizing the use ofkōans.[40] In the Middle Ages kōan study was widely practiced in the Sōtō school.[4] Gentō Sokuchū started the elevation of Dōgen to the status he has nowadays, when he implemented new regulations, based on Dōgen's regulations.[4]
This growing status of Dōgen as textual authority also posed a problem for the Sōtō school:
The Sōtō hierarchy, no doubt afraid of what other radical reformers might find in Dōgen'sShobo Genzo, a work open to a variety of interpretations, immediately took steps to restrict access to this traditional symbol of sectarian authority. Acting at the request of the Sōtō prelates, in 1722 the government prohibited the copying or publication of any part ofShobo Genzo.[37]
During theMeiji period (1868–1912) Japan abandoned its feudal system and opened up to Western modernism.Shinto became the state religion, and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. Rinzai and Sōtō Zen chose to adapt, with embarrassing consequences when Japanese nationalism was endorsed by the Zen institutions. War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.[41][42]
Within the Buddhist establishment the Western world was seen as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to.[41][43] Parties within the Zen establishment sought to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity.[44]
During this period a reappraisal of Dōgen started. The memory of Dōgen was used to ensure Eihei-ji's central place in the Sōtō organisation, and "to cement closer ties with lay people". In 1899 the first lay ordination ceremony was organized in Eihei-ji.[4] Eihei-ji also promoted the study of Dōgen's works, especially the Shōbōgenzō, which changed the view of Dōgen in Sōtō's history.[4] An image of Dōgen was created that suited the specific interests of Eihei-ji:
Dōgen's memory has helped keep Eihei-ji financially secure, in good repair, and filled with monks and lay pilgrims who look to Dōgen for religious inspiration ... the Dōgen we remember is a constructed image, an image constructed in large measure to serve the sectarian agendas of Eihei-ji in its rivalry with Sōji-ji. We should remember that the Dōgen of the Shōbōgenzō, the Dōgen who is held up as a profound religious philosopher, is a fairly recent innovation in the history of Dōgen remembrances.[4]
Funerals continue to play an important role as a point of contact between the monks and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with funerals and death, while only 17 percent visit for spiritual reasons and a mere 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis.[45]
In a piece of advice to western practitioners, Kojun Kishigami Osho, a dharma heir ofKōdō Sawaki, writes:
Every year, about 150 novices arrive. About 90 percent of them are sons of temple heads, which leaves only 10 percent who chose this path for themselves. For the autumn session, about 250 monks come together. Essentially what they are learning in these temples is the ability to officiate all kinds of ceremonies and rites practiced by the Sōtō School – the methods for fulfilling their role. Apart from this aspect, practicing with the idea of developing one’s own spirituality is not prevalent.[web 1]
According to Kishigami, practice may as well be undertaken elsewhere:
If you want to study Buddhism, I recommend the Japanese universities. If you want to learn the ceremonies practiced by the Sōtō School, you need only head for Eihei-ji or Soji-ji.
But if your goal is to seriously learn the practice of zazen, unfortunately, I have no Japanese temple to recommend to you. Of course, you can go to Antai-ji, if you want; but if you want to deepen your practice of true Zen, you can do it in Europe. If you go to Japan for this, you will be disappointed. Don't expect to find anything wonderful there.[web 1]
In the 20th century Sōtō Zen spread out to the west.
Shunryū Suzuki played a central role in bringing Sōtō to the west. Suzuki studied atKomazawa University, the Sōtō Zen university in Tokyo. In 1959 Suzuki arrived inCalifornia to attend toSoko-ji, at that time the sole Sōtō temple inSan Francisco. His bookZen Mind, Beginner's Mind has become a classic in western Zen culture. Suzuki's teaching of Shikantaza and Zen practice led to the formation of the San Francisco Zen Center, one of the largest and most successful Zen organizations in the West. The training monastery of the San Francisco Zen center, atTassajara Hot Springs in central California, was the first Buddhist Monastery to be established outside Asia. Today SFZC includes Tassajara Monastery, Green Gulch Farm, and City Center. Various Zen Centers around the U.S. are part of the dharma lineage of San Francisco Zen Center and maintain close organizational ties with it.
Suzuki's assistantDainin Katagiri was invited to come toMinneapolis,Minnesota, where he moved in 1972 after Suzuki's death. Katagiri and his students built four Sōtō Zen centers withinMinneapolis–Saint Paul.[web 2][web 3][web 4]
TheSanbo Kyodan is a lay Zen sect with elements of both the Soto and the Rinzai traditions started by Haku'un Yasutani, and later Kōun Yamada. It was renamed Sanbo-Zen International in 2014.
In Europe the Sanbo Kyodan has been influential viaHugo Enomiya-Lassalle, and via students of disgraced Zen monk Dennis Genpo Merzel,[46] especially in the Netherlands.
TheAntaiji-based lineage ofKōdō Sawaki is also widespread. Sawaki's student and successor as abbotKōshō Uchiyama was the teacher ofShōhaku Okumura who established theSanshin Zen Community inBloomington, Indiana, and his studentGudō Wafu Nishijima wasBrad Warner's teacher. Another of Sawaki's students,Taisen Deshimaru,[47] travelled to France where he becameKaikyosokan (head of Japanese Soto Zen for a particular country or continent) in Europe.[48] Deshimaru founded the Association Zen Internationale in 1970, which is now the oldest and largest Zen association in Europe, with affiliated sanghas in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and other countries.[49][50]
The larger majority of North American Sōtō priests[c] joined in 1996 to form theSoto Zen Buddhist Association. While institutionally independent of the Japanese Sōtōshū, the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Association works closely with what most members see as their parent organization. With about one hundred fully transmitted priests, the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Association now represents about 80% of Western Sōtō teachers.[51] The Soto Zen Buddhist Association approved a document honoring the women ancestors in the Zen tradition at its biannual meeting on October 8, 2010. Female ancestors, dating back 2,500 years from India, China, and Japan, may now be included in the curriculum, ritual, and training offered to Western Zen students.[52]
Daily services in Sōtō monasteries include chanting of sutras anddharanis.[web 5]
In the Sōtō school of Zen,Shikantaza, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference.
Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found throughoutDōgen's works:
In the first works he wrote after his return to Japan, theFukan zazengi (Principles for the universal promotion ofzazen) andBendōwa (Distinguishing the Way), he advocatedzazen (seated meditation) as the supreme Buddhist practice for both monks and laypersons.[12]
Other important texts promoting zazen are theShōbōgenzō, and the "Principles of Zazen"[web 6] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen".[web 7]
Sōtō Zen was often given the derogatory name "farmer Zen" because of its mass appeal. Some teachers of Zen would say that it was called "farmer Zen" because of its down-to-earth approach, while theRinzai school was often called "samurai Zen" because of the largersamurai following.[53][54] The latter term for the Rinzai can be somewhat misleading, however, as the Sōtō school also had samurai among its rosters.[55]
Sōtō Zen, like all of Zen, relies on thePrajnaparamita Sutras, as well as generalMahayana Buddhist sutras, such as theLotus Sutra, theBrahma Net Sutra and theLankavatara Sutra. Zen is influenced in large part by theYogacara school of philosophy as well as theHuayan school.
Until the promotion of Dogen studies in modern times, the study of Chinese texts was prevalent in Sōtō:
After textual learning was revived during the early Tokugawa period, most Japanese Sōtō monks still studied only well-known Chinese Buddhist scriptures or classic Chinese Zen texts. Eventually a few scholarly monks likeMenzan Zuihō began to study Dōgen's writings, but they were the exceptions. Even when scholarly monks read Dōgen's writings, they usually did not lecture on them to their disciples.[4]
Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien's (Shitou Xiqien, Sekito Kisen, 700–790) poem"The Harmony of Difference and Sameness" is an important early expression of Zen Buddhism and is chanted in Sōtō temples to this day.
One of the poems of Tung-shan Liang-chieh, the founder of Sōtō, "The Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness" is also chanted in Sōtō temples. Another set of his poems on the Five Positions (Five Ranks) of Absolute and Relative is important as a set ofkōans in the Rinzai school.
Other texts typically chanted in Sōtō Zen temples include theHeart Sutra (Hannyashingyō), and Dōgen's Fukanzazengi (Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen).
Dōgen's teaching is characterized by the identification of practice as enlightenment itself. This is to be found in theShōbōgenzō. The popularity of this huge body of texts is from a relatively recent date:
Today, when someone remembers Dōgen or thinks of Sōtō Zen, most often that person automatically thinks of Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō. This kind of automatic association of Dōgen with this work is very much a modern development. By the end of the fifteenth century most of Dōgen's writings had been hidden from view in temple vaults where they became secret treasures ... In earlier generations only one Zen teacher,Nishiari Bokusan (1821–1910), is known to have ever lectured on how the Shōbōgenzō should be read and understood.[4]
The study of Dōgen, and especially his Shobogenzo, has become the norm in the 20th century:
Beginning in 1905 Eiheiji organized its first Shōbōgenzō conference (Genzō e) ... Since 1905 it has become an annual event at Eiheiji, and over time it gradually changed the direction of Sōtō Zen monastic education ... Sōtan's lectures provided a model that could be emulated by each of the other Zen monks who came to Eiheiji. This model has become the norm, not the exception. Today every Sōtō Zen teacher lectures on Dōgen's Shōbōgenzō.[4]
The Sōtō-shū organisation has an elaborate organisation.[d] It consists of about 15,000 temples. There are circa 30 training centers, where Sōtō monks can train to become anoshō or priest and run their own temple.[web 8]
Sōtō-shu has a centralised organisation, run by a head:
Sōtō-shū is a democratic organization with a head (called 宗務総長 Shūmusōchō) that is elected by a parliament. The parliament in turn consist of 72 priests that are elected in 36 districts throughout Japan, 2 from each district. The Shūmusōchō selects a cabinet that consists of him and seven other priests who together govern the organization. It is commonly believed that the Kanchō, who is either the head of Eiheiji or Sōjiji, the two head temples, is the boss of Sōtō-shū. This is not the case. The Kanchō has only representational functions; the real power lies with the Shūmusōchō and his cabinet.[web 8]
Contemporary Sōtō-shū has four classes of temples:[56]
While Eihei-ji owes its existence to Dōgen, throughout history this head temple has had significantly fewer sub-temple affiliates than the Sōji-ji. During theTokugawa period, Eiheiji had approximately 1,300 affiliate temples compared to Sōji-ji's 16,200. Furthermore, out of the more than 14,000 temples of the Sōtō sect today, 13,850 of those identify themselves as affiliates of Sōji-ji. Additionally, most of the some 148 temples that are affiliates of Eiheiji today are only minor temples located inHokkaido—founded during a period ofcolonization during theMeiji period. Therefore, it is often said that Eiheiji is a head temple only in the sense that it is head of all Sōtō dharma lineages.[2]
The Sōtū-shū is an "umbrella (hokatsu) organization for affiliated temples and organizations".[attribution needed][57] It has "three sets of governing documents":[attribution needed][57]
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