Rye (Secale cereale) is agrass grown extensively as agrain, acover crop and aforage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cerealswheat andbarley. It is likely that rye arrived in Europe as asecondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result ofVavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.
Rye grain is used forbread,beer,rye whiskey, and animalfodder. In Scandinavia, rye was a staple food in the Middle Ages, and ryecrispbread remains a popular food in the region. Europe produces around half of the world's rye; relatively little is traded between countries. A wheat-rye hybrid,triticale, combines the qualities of the two parent crops and is produced in large quantities worldwide. In European folklore, theRoggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon orFeldgeist.
Rye is a tall grass grown for its seeds; it can be anannual or abiennial. Depending on environmental conditions and variety it reaches 1 to 3 metres (3+1⁄2 to 10 ft) in height. Its leaves are blue-green, long, and pointed. The seeds are carried in a curved head or spike some7 to 15 centimetres (2+3⁄4 to 6 in) long. The head is composed of manyspikelets, each of which holds two small flowers; the spikelets alternate left and right up the head.[1]
The seeds of rye are some 7 or 8 mm long, much larger and less round thanwheat.
The generic nameSecale, related to Italiansegale and Frenchseigle meaning "rye", is of unknown origin but may derive from a Balkan language.[3] The English name rye derives from Old Englishryge, related to Dutchrogge, GermanRoggen, and Russianрожьrožʹ, again all with the same meaning.[4]
Rye is one of severalcereals that grow wild in theLevant, central and easternTurkey and adjacent areas. Evidence uncovered at theEpipalaeolithic site ofTell Abu Hureyra in theEuphrates valley of northernSyria suggests that rye was among the first cereal crops to be systematically cultivated, around 13,000 years ago.[5] However, that claim remains controversial; critics point to inconsistencies in theradiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than onchaff.[6]
Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at a number ofNeolithic sites in Asia Minor (Anatolia, now Turkey), such as thePre-Pottery Neolithic B Can Hasan III nearÇatalhöyük,[7][8] but is otherwise absent from the archaeological record until theBronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 BCE.[9]
It is likely that rye was brought westwards from Asia Minor as asecondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result ofVavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.[10] Archeological evidence of this grain has been found inRoman contexts along theRhine and theDanube and in Ireland and Britain.[11] The Roman naturalistPliny the Elder was dismissive of a grain that may have been rye, writing that it "is a very poor food and only serves to avert starvation".[12] He said it was mixed withemmer "to mitigate its bitter taste, and even then is most unpleasant to the stomach".[13]
Rye grows well in much poorer soils than those necessary for most cereal grains. Thus, it is an especially valuable crop in regions where the soil hassand orpeat. Rye plants withstand cold better than other small grains, surviving snow cover that would kill winter wheat. Winter rye is the most popular: it is planted and begins to grow in autumn. In spring, the plants develop rapidly.[15] This allows it to provide spring grazing, at a time when spring-planted wheat has only just germinated.[16]
The physical properties of rye affect attributes of the final food product such as seed size, surface area, and porosity. The surface area of the seed directly correlates to the drying and heat transfer time.[17] Smaller seeds have increased heat transfer, which leads to lower drying time. Seeds with lower porosity lose water more slowly during the process of drying.[17]
Rye isharvested like wheat with acombine harvester, which cuts the plants,threshes andwinnows the grain, and releases thestraw to the field where it is later pressed into bales or left as soil amendment. The resultant grain is stored in localsilos or transported to regionalgrain elevators and combined with other lots for storage and distant shipment. Before the era ofmechanised agriculture, rye harvesting was amanual task performed withscythes orsickles.[18][19]
Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the autumn to provide ground cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing, even while there is general snow cover. It can be used as a cover crop to prevent the growth ofwinter-hardy weeds.[20]
Rye grows better than any other cereal in heavyclay and light sandy soil, and infertile or drought-affected soils. It can toleratepH between 4.5 and 8.0, but soils having pH 5.0 to 7.0 are best suited for rye cultivation. Rye grows best in fertile, well-drainedloam or clay-loam soils.[21] As for temperature, the crop can thrive in subzero environments, assisted by the production ofantifreeze polypeptides (different from those produced by some fish and insects) by the leaves of winter rye.[22]
Rye is a common,unwanted invader ofwinter wheat fields. If allowed to grow and mature, it may cause substantially reduced prices (docking) for harvested wheat.[23]
Pests including the nematodeDitylenchus dipsaci and a variety of herbivorous insects can seriously affect plant health.[24]
Rye is highly susceptible to theergot fungus.[25][26] Consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results inergotism, which causes convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations and death. Historically, damp northern countries that depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to periodic epidemics.[15] Modern grain-cleaning and milling methods have practically eliminated ergotism, but it remains a risk if food safety vigilance breaks down.[27]
Eating whole-grain rye, as well as other high-fiber grains, improves regulation ofblood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).[34] Consumingbreakfast cereals containing rye over weeks to months also improved cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.[35]
Rye grain is refined into aflour high ingliadin but low inglutenin and rich in soluble fiber.Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids present in high amounts in the bran layer (e.g.pericarp,testa andaleurone layers) of wheat and rye (0.1–0.3% of dry weight).[38]Rye bread, includingpumpernickel, is made using rye flour and is a widely eaten food in Northern and Eastern Europe.[39][40] In Scandinavia, rye is widely used to makecrispbread (Knäckebröd); in the Middle Ages it was astaple food in the region, and it remains popular in the 21st century.[41]
Rye grain is used to make alcoholic drinks, such asrye whiskey andrye beer.[1] The traditional cloudy and sweet-sour low-alcohol beveragekvass is fermented from rye bread or rye flour and malt.[42]
Grains ofwheat, rye, and their hybrid,triticale. Triticale is significantly larger than wheat.
Plant breeders, starting in the 19th century in Germany and Scotland,[43] but mainly from the 1950s, worked to develop a hybrid cereal with the best qualities of wheat and rye, now calledtriticale. Modern triticales arehexaploid with six sets of chromosomes; they are used to produce millions of tons of cereal annually.[44]
Varieties of rye hold much genetic diversity,[45][46][47] which can be used to improve other crops such as wheat. For example, the pollination abilities of wheat can be improved by the addition of the rye chromosome 4R; this increases the size of the wheatanther and the amount of pollen.[48] The1R chromosome is the source of manycrop disease resistance genes.[49] Varieties such as Petkus, Insave, Amigo, and Imperial have donated 1R-originating resistance to wheat.[49]AC Hazlet rye is a medium-sized winter rye with resistance to bothlodging andshattering.[50] Rye was thegene donor ofSr31 – astem rust resistance gene – introgressed into wheat.[51]
The characteristics ofS. cereale have been combined with another perennial rye,S. montanum, to produceS. cereanum, which has the beneficial characteristics of each. The hybrid rye can be grown in harsh environments and on poor soil. It provides improved forage with digestible fiber and protein.[52]
Rye is a usefulforage crop in cool climates; it grows vigorously and provides plentifulfodder for grazing animals, orgreen manure to improve the soil.[53] It forms a goodcover crop in winter with its rapid growth and deep roots.[54]
Rye straw is used aslivestock bedding, despite the risk of ergot poisoning.[55] It is used on a small scale to makecrafts such ascorn dollies.[56] More recently it has found uses as a raw material for bioconversion to products such as the sweetenerxylitol.[57]
Rye flour is boiled withred iron oxide pigments and some additives to make traditionalFalun red paint, widely used as a house paint in Sweden and other Scandinavian countries.[58][59]
ARoggenwolf, a carnivorous spirit of the rye fields, with sheaves of harvested rye, on the coat of arms of the Bartensleben family
In European folklore, theRoggenwolf ("rye wolf") is a carnivorous corn demon orFeldgeist, a field spirit shaped like awolf.[60] TheRoggenwolf steals children and feeds on them.[61] The last grain heads are often left at their place as a sacrifice for the agricultural spirits.[62]
In contrast, theRoggenmuhme orRoggenmutter ("rye aunt" or "rye mother") is an anthropomorphic female corn demon with fiery fingers. Her bosoms are filled with tar and may end in tips of iron. Her bosoms are also long, and as such must be thrown over her shoulders when she runs. TheRoggenmuhme is completely black or white, and in her hand she has a birch or whip from which lightning sparks. She can change herself into different animals, such as snakes, turtles, and frogs.[63]
The classical scholarCarl A. P. Ruck writes that theRoggenmutter was believed to go through the fields, rustling like the wind, with a pack of rye wolves running after her. They spread ergot through the sheaves of harvested rye. According to Ruck, they then lured children into the fields to nurse on the infected grains "like the iron teats of theRoggenmutter".[64] The enlarged reddish ergot-infected grains were known asWulfzähne (wolf teeth).[64]
^Soreng RJ, Peterson PM, Romaschenko K, et al. (2017). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications".Journal of Systematics and Evolution.55 (4):259–290.Bibcode:2017JSyEv..55..259S.doi:10.1111/jse.12262.hdl:10261/240149.ISSN1674-4918.
^Walde A, Hofmann JB (1954)."secale".Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch [Latin Etymology Dictionary] (in German). Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). Heidelberg: Carl Winter. p. 504.
^abJouki M, Emam-Djomeh Z, Khazaei N (2012). "Physical Properties of Whole Rye Seed (Secale cereal)".International Journal of Food Engineering.8 (4).doi:10.1515/1556-3758.2054.S2CID102003836.
^"Triticale". Digital Herbarium of Crop Plants Establishment of Digital Herbarium and Herbal museum for Crop plant by Department of Crop Botany, BSMRAU. RetrievedMay 4, 2024.
^Sipos T, Halász E (April 25, 2007). "The role of perennial rye (Secale cereale ×S. montanum) in sustainable agriculture".Cereal Research Communications.35 (2):1073–1075.doi:10.1556/CRC.35.2007.2.227.hdl:2437/4973.
^"Keittomaali".www.korjaustaito.fi (in Finnish). RetrievedFebruary 24, 2025.
^Golther W (2011).Germanische Mythologie: Vollständige Ausgabe [Germanic Mythology] (in German) (Complete ed.). Wiesbaden: Marix-Verlag. p. 200.ISBN978-3-937715-38-4.
^Mannhardt W (2005).Wald- und Feldkulte: Band II [Forest and Field Cults: Volume II] (in German). Elibron Classics. p. 319.ISBN1-4212-4778-X.
^Dahn F, Dahn T (2010).Germanische Götter- und Heldensagen [Germanic God- and Hero-tales] (in German).Wiesbaden: Marix-Verlag. p. 171.ISBN978-3-937715-39-1.
^Mannhardt W (2014).Die Korndämonen: Beitrag zur germanischen Sittenkunde [The Corn Spirits: Contribution to Germanic Moral Studies] (in German).Bremen: Bremen University Press. p. 20.ISBN978-3-95562-798-0.
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