| Ryūkōka | |
|---|---|
| Stylistic origins | |
| Cultural origins | 1920s, Japan |
| Derivative forms | |
Ryūkōka (流行歌,lit. 'popular song') is a Japanesemusical genre.[1] The term originally denoted any kind of "popular music" in Japanese, and is thesinic reading ofhayariuta, used for commercial music ofEdo Period.[2] Therefore,imayō, which was promoted byEmperor Go-Shirakawa in theHeian period, was a kind ofryūkōka.[3] Today, however,ryūkōka refers specifically to Japanese popular music from the late 1920s through the early 1960s.[4] Some of the roots ofryūkōka were developed from Westernclassical music.[5]Ryūkōka ultimately split into two genres:enka andpoppusu.[6] Unlikeenka, archetypalryūkōka songs did not use thekobushi method of singing.[7]Ryūkōka usedlegato.Bin Uehara andYoshio Tabata are considered to be among the founders of the modern style ofkobushi singing.[8]
Many composers and singers ofryūkōka went on to earn official distinctions;Ichiro Fujiyama and composersMasao Koga andRyoichi Hattori received thePeople's Honour Award in later years.
Althoughenka branched off fromryūkōka, many singers of the latter genre proclaimed strong disdain for its stylistic descendant. In a 1981 interview,Noriko Awaya said "Whenever I hearenka, I have to get away from the music because I feel like vomiting."[9][fn 1]
In 1914,Sumako Matsui's song "Katyusha's song", composed byShinpei Nakayama, was used as a theme of the renditionResurrection in Japan. The record of the song sold 20,000 copies.[10] One theory holds that this was the firstryūkōka song, which was made byHogetsu Shimamura's order: "the tune between Japanese popular folk music and Western music".[11][fn 2] However, street performers called "enka-shi" (演歌師) had been popular until record labels such as theVictor Company of Japan began to produce songs in the earlyShōwa period.[12]
Although Matsui committed suicide after Shimamura's death, Nakayama continued to develop his music. During his career, he composed about 3,000 songs such as the 1921 song "Teru teru bozu".[13] Nakayama transferred Japanese traditional music tostaff-style by main force. His 1921 song "Sendō Kouta" (船頭小唄) was later covered by various singers, but was at first best known for being covered byviolin enka-shi Shunyo Tottori (鳥取春陽,Tottori Shun'yō, 1900–1932) featuringOrchestra. Thepentatonic scale used in this song was "Minor scale without forth and seventhdegree". However, the music based on the scale had difficult in presentingchord andharmony becausetraditional Japanese music didn't adoptequal temperament.[14]
Nakayama's songs were based on Japanese folk music calledmin'yō, but also adopted Western musical style. Therefore, his music was called "Shin Min'yō" (新民謡,lit. "New Folk Song").[14]
In the early Showa period, themicrophone was introduced into the popular music of Japan.Teiichi Futamura released his cover version of "Sing me A Song of Araby" (アラビヤの唄,Arabiya no Uta) in 1928. The song was originally composed byFred Fisher.Chiyako Sato's 1928 song "Habu no Minato" (波浮の港,lit. "Port of Habu")[fn 3], composed by Nakayama, sold 100,000 copies.[12] The song was also sung by singerYoshie Fujiwara.[12] Chiyako Sato's 1929 song "Tokyo March" sold more than 300,000 copies.[15]
Some of the country's first major stars were singerIchiro Fujiyama and composerMasao Koga. Koga attempted to initiate fusion of Western jazz and Japanesedodoitsu.[16] Fujiyama's 1931 song "Sake wa Namida ka Tameiki ka" (酒は涙か溜息か,lit. "Is Sake Tears or Sighs?"), composed by Koga, became a major hit in Japan. This song created a fusion of Fujiyama'scrooning and Koga'sguitar play.[16] Using the vocal technicMezza Voce with a microphone, Fujiyama sang the song by the deep voice of notOpera'sG minor butD minor.[16] Fujiyama's song "Oka o Koete" (丘を越えて,lit. "Beyond the Hill") sold 600,000 copies.[17] However, Fujiyama was an elite student, who specialized Westernclassical music in theTokyo Music School.Ryūkōka songs often dealt with the "Ero Guro Nansensu" things.[18] Since his school regardedryūkōka as bad form at that time, Fujiyama was once suspended from the school, though Fujiyama was not dismissed from the school becauseKlaus Pringsheim Sr., a professor of the school, opposed the proposal of Fujiyama's expulsion.[16]
This period also saw the popularity ofgeisha singers such asIchimaru andKatsutaro Kouta. Katsutaro became famous when Fujiyama was turned out ofryūkōka. Her song "Shima no Musume" (島の娘,lit. "Island Girl") sold 600,000 copies.[19] Katsutaro and Issei Mishima recordedduet song "Tokyo Ondo". The song was composed by Shinpei Nakayama and was released in 1933. The single "Tokyo Ondo" sold 1,200,000 copies.[20]
When Fujiyama sang Western classiclied songs, those songs were called "kayōkyoku", but the term "kayōkyoku" went on to be used as another name ofryūkōka inNHK.[21] At first, Koga was a good co-worker for Fujiyama but they moved apart from each other because Koga sought "Japanese" music.[22] On the other hand, Yoshie Fujiwara drew a clear line between him andryūkōka and established theFujiwara Opera in 1934, launching the establishment of JapaneseOpera.[12]Baritone singerTaro Shoji's 1934 song "Akagi no Komoriuta" (赤城の子守唄,lit. "Lullaby ofAkagi") also became popular, though he did not knowKunisada Chūji, the theme of the song.[23]
Soprano singerNoriko Awaya also sangryūkōka, but theToyo Music School once annulled her graduation.[9] However, her song "Wakare no Blues" (別れのブルース,lit. "Farewell Blues") became a hit in 1937.[9] The song was composed by jazz composerRyoichi Hattori.[24] She was called "Queen of Blues", though term "blues" was just a song title.[9]
In 1936,NHK started radio program "Kokumin Kayō" (国民歌謡,lit. "National Kayō") to compete withryūkōka, which was under the influence of "Ero Guro Nansensu", but it soon began to airwar songs around July 1937.[18] The program was renamed to "Warera no Uta" (われらのうた,lit. "Our Songs") in 1941 and then "Kokumin Gasshō" (国民合唱,lit. "National Group Singing") in 1942.[18] The songs during the war were called "Senji Kayō" (戦時歌謡). During the war, many musicians were forced to write war songs.Yuji Koseki composed many war songs and was later criticised as a war collaborator, though he seemed to be touched with remorse.[25] Koseki composed "Roei no Uta" (露営の歌,lit. "Song of the Camp") released in 1937. Although the song was aB-side song, it sold 600,000 copies.[26] The 1937 song "Aikoku Kōshinkyoku" (愛国行進曲,lit. "Patriotic March") sold 1,000,000 copies.[27] However, Japanese jazz musicians such asRyoichi Hattori seemed to be vigorless to compose war songs.[28] His sonKatsuhisa Hattori claimed that he was not an antinationalist and he technically were hardly not able to compose war songs even if they wanted to make those because Japanese war songs were musicallyenka.[28]
On the other hand, former enka-shiHaruo Oka's debut song "Kokkyō no Haru" (国境の春,lit. "Spring at the Border") was released in 1939.Yoshio Tabata also mede his debut with song "Shima no Funauta" (島の舟唄,lit. "Island Ship Song") in 1939.Rōkyoku (naniwa-bushi) was used for enhancing the national prestige.[29]
Although many war songs were made after the beginning of thePacific War, "Kōgen no Tsuki" (高原の月,lit. "Tableland Moon"), sung by Noboru Kirishima andAkiko Futaba, became popular as a lyrical song.[30] When the war was nearing an end, the theme included frightful spectacles such as theBattle of Attu,Guadalcanal Campaign andMarshall Islands Campaign.[28] Oka went toAmbon Island, but fell ill and soon returned to Japan.Bin Uehara, who usedkobushi ofnaniwa-bushi for singing, was killed in theNew Guinea campaign and Fujiyama was taken prisoner inIndonesia.[31]
After the war, the songs during the war have been regarded as a taboo even in Japan despite those historical importance.[18] One of war songs, "Shussei Heishi o Okuru Uta" (出征兵士を送る歌,literally "Song for giving warriors a send-off"), composed byIsao Hayashi, went on to become a theme of Japanese right-wing groups calleduyoku dantai.[28]Li Xianglan's "Suzhou Nocturne", composed by Hattori, has remained controversial in China, though it was a non-propaganda song.[32] After the war,Taro Shoji, who heard theGyokuon-hōsō inNagano Prefecture, was once banned from singing many of his songs because those were regarded as nationalistic.[31]Rōkyoku faded into the wallpaper with the spread of television in the postwar period.[29] In 1946, NHK revived their music program as "Radio Kayō" and it was later reformed as "Minna no Uta", but NHK was disinclined to mention its former history.[18]
Michiko Namiki's song "Ringo no Uta" (リンゴの唄,lit. "Song of Apple") sung by Michiko Namiki and Noboru Kirishima, airing in 1945 movie "Soyokaze", became popular. Haruo Oka also released hit songs such as his 1946 song "Tokyo no Hanauri Musume" (東京の花売り娘,lit. "Tokyo Flower Girl") and his 1948 song "Akogare no Hawaii kōro" (憧れのハワイ航路,lit. "Coveted Fairway to Hawaii"). Ichiro Fujiyama, who was falsely reported to have been killed in battle, returned to Japan in 1946.[33]
Ryoichi Hattori, who moved toShanghai in 1944, contributed to advancing Japanesepoppusu music after the war.[24]Shizuko Kasagi's 1947 song "Tokyo Boogie-Woogie", composed by Hattori, became popular. Hattori also composedIchimaru's 1949 song "Shamisen Boogie-Woogie". Around that time,Hibari Misora became known as animpersonator of Kasagi.[34] She made her debut with song "Kappa Boogie-Woogie" in 1949. Hattori's composed song "Aoi Sanmyaku" (青い山脈,lit. "Blue Mountains"), which was sung by Ichiro Fujiyama and Mitsue Nara, became a major hit in the early post-war years in Japan.[24]
Yuji Koseki composed "Nagasaki no Kane" (長崎の鐘,lit. "The Bells ofNagasaki") and "Himeyuri no Tō" (ひめゆりの塔,lit. "Himeyuri Lily Tower").[35] "Nagasaki no Kane", based onTakashi Nagai's bookThe Bells of Nagasaki, was sung by Fujiyama in 1949. Fujiyama became the final singer of all singers at the 1stKōhaku Uta Gassen with "Nagasaki no Kane" in 1951.Chiemi Eri debuted in 1952 andIzumi Yukimura debuted in 1953. Fujiyama moved toNHK in 1954 and returned to his original style―classical music. He went on to become aconductor for "Hotaru no Hikari" at theKōhaku Uta Gassen.[36]
New singers such asHibari Misora,Hachiro Kasuga,Michiya Mihashi andChiyoko Shimakura became popular when old singers became unpopular.[8] The period between around 1955 and 1964 saw the popularity of "kayōkyoku".[37] Around that time, Japanese composers went on to establish their own genres such asToru Funamura andMinoru Endo's "Enka",Tadashi Yoshida's "Mood Kayō", andHachidai Nakamura andHiroshi Miyagawa's "Jazz".[5]Masao Koga renounced his pre-war musical style, approaching Hibari Misora.[8]
The song "Otomisan" was made for being sung by Haruo Oka, but was eventually sung byHachiro Kasuga and became a major hit in Japan in 1954. The single sold over one million copies.[38] The song was composed byMasanobu Tokuchi, who came from theRyukyu Islands. Kasuga's 1955 song "Wakare no Ipponsugi", composed by Funamura, also became a hit song. Funamura also composedMichiya Mihashi's 1955 song "Anoko Ga Naiteru Hatoba".Ryōkyōku singers such asHaruo Minami andHideo Murata joined Japanese popular music. Hachiro Kasuga, Michiya Mihashi and Hideo Murata went on to form their genre later calledenka.[38]
Frank Nagai's 1957 song "Yūrakuchō de Aimashō", composed by Yoshida, also became popular. Around that time, however, Japaneserock and roll movement began and theNichigeki Western Carnival was opened in 1958. The concerts were taken part in by future popular singers such asMickey Curtis andKyu Sakamoto. Against Japanese rock and roll movement,Yukio Hashi shocked Japanese popular music as a youngenka singer because singers of the genre were elderly singers such as Hachiro Kasuga and Michiya Mihashi.[8]
Japanese singers such as Kyu Sakamoto,The Peanuts andMieko Hirota covered American songs at first, but they began to sing their own song.[39] Sakamoto's 1961 single "Ue o muite arukō", composed by Nakamura, became a major hit in Japan. On the other hand, Hideo Murata's 1961 single "Ōsho" (王将,lit. "King General"), composed by Toru Funamura, sold over one million copies in Japan. On June 5, 1962,Saburō Kitajima made his debut with the single "Bungacha Bushi." Funamura composed Kitajima's 1962 hit song "Namida Bune" (なみだ船,lit. "Boat of Tears"). Hiroshi Miyagawa composed The Peanuts' 1962 song "Furimukanaide." The Peanuts also sang "Mothra's Song". The song was composed by Yuji Koseki.[35]
In 1963, the era of former popular singers such asHibari Misora,Chiemi Eri,Izumi Yukimura,Hachiro Kasuga,Michiya Mihashi andFrank Nagai seemed to end and Sakamoto released a Japanese hit song titled "Miagete Goran Yoru no Hoshi o".[40] In June 1963, Sakamoto's "Ue o muite arukō" reached the number-one position in the U.S.Billboard Hot 100 under its alternative title "Sukiyaki". In 1963, Kitajima's song "Guitar Jingi" (ギター仁義,lit. "Guitar Benevolence and Righteousness") andKazuo Funaki's song "Koko San Nen Sei" (高校三年生,lit. "High School Seniors") also became popular. Both songs were composed by Minoru Endo. Hashi and Funaki became singers for youth music, making a new genre called "Seishun Kayō" (青春歌謡,lit. "Youthful Kayō").[8]
On September 6, 1963, record labelNippon Crown became independent from theNippon Columbia.Saburō Kitajima was its member.Hibari Misora presented a song titled "Kanto Harusame Kasa" when the record label was established.[41] Kitajima took part in the Kōhaku Uta Gassen for the first time on December 31, 1963. The audience share of the 14thKōhaku Uta Gassen reached 81.4% in 1963.[40] In 1964, Haruo Minami released his cover version of song "Tokyo Gorin Ondo" (東京五輪音頭,lit. "Ondo for theTokyo Olympics"), composed byMasao Koga. In 1965, Kitajima released a string of hits such as "Kyōdai Jingi" (兄弟仁義,lit. "Brother Benevolence And Righteousness"), "Kaerokana" (帰ろかな,lit. "Maybe I Will Return to My Home") and "Hakodate no Hito" (函館の女,lit. "Hakodate Woman"). "Kaerokana" was composed byHachidai Nakamura. Koga composed Hibari's song "Yawara", which won the grand prix award at theJapan Record Award in 1965.[42] Koga was also an original composer of Hibari's 1966 cover song "Kanashii Sake" (悲しい酒,lit. "Sad Sake"). His music, called "Koga melody", became a base of modernenka and he became known as "the father of modernenka".[43]
On the other hand, Hachidai Nakamura also composed theJohnnys' 1964 debut single "Wakai Namida." Japanese guitaristYūzō Kayama also produced his 1965 hit song "Kimi to Itsumademo" as a singer. British rock bandThe Beatles visited Japan and had a concert at theNippon Budokan in 1966. With the aim of breaking the traditional style,Group Sounds band The Blue Comets' 1966 song "Aoi Hitomi" (青い瞳,lit. "Blue Eye"), originally released as an English song, was released as a Japanese song.[44] In 1966, folk singerRyoko Moriyama, a daughter of jazz musician Hisashi Moriyama, also released hit song "Kyō no Hi wa Sayōnara" (今日の日はさようなら,lit. "Good-bye, Today"). The Blue Comets' song "Blue Chateau" won the grand prix award at the Japan Record Award in 1967.The Folk Crusaders' 1967 song "I Only Live Twice" also had a big impact on Japanese popular music. New musical movement called "Kayō Pops" (歌謡ポップス) also a string of hits such asAyumi Ishida's 1968 song "Blue Light Yokohama", composed by Kyohei Tsutsumi.[45]
Group Sounds became unpopular in the late 1960s in Japan. Then, Group Sounds was displaced by "New Rock" in Japanese underground rock music around 1970. Japanese-language rock bandHappy End became one of prototypes of modernJ-pop.[46] Mickey Curtis formed rock band "Samurai" in 1969 in U.K. and later scouted the Japanese band "Carol" in which leader wasEikichi Yazawa.[47]
A part of Ryoichi Hattori's Western-style music during that period remained in Western-styleclassical music of Japan and was transvalued in 2000s.[48] Histribute album was released on October 17, 2007.[49] Various musicians such asHideaki Tokunaga (for "Wakare no Blues"),Kazumasa Oda (for "Suzhou Nocturne"),Masaharu Fukuyama (for "Tokyo Boogie-woogie") andTokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (for "Aoi Sanmyaku") took part in the album. The tribute album debuted at the number-ten position on the JapaneseOricon weekly album charts.[50]
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