In early 2014, theEuromaidan protests led to the Revolution of Dignity and the ousting of Ukraine's pro-Russian presidentViktor Yanukovych. Shortly after,pro-Russian protests began in parts of southeastern Ukraine, whileunmarked Russian troops occupiedCrimea. Russia soon annexed Crimea after ahighly disputed referendum. In April 2014, Russian-backed militantsseized towns and cities in Ukraine's easternDonbas region and proclaimed theDonetsk People's Republic (DPR) and theLuhansk People's Republic (LPR) as independent states, starting theDonbas war. Russia covertly supported the separatists with its own troops, tanks and artillery, preventing Ukraine from fully retaking the territory. TheInternational Criminal Court (ICC) judged that the war was both a national and international armed conflict involving Russia,[9] and theEuropean Court of Human Rights judged that Russia controlled the DPR and LPR from 2014 onward.[10] In February 2015, Russia and Ukraine signed theMinsk II agreements, but they were never fully implemented in the following years. The Donbas war became a static conflict likened totrench warfare; ceasefires were repeatedly broken but the frontlines did not move.
At the2008 Bucharest summit, Ukraine andGeorgia sought to join NATO, but NATO members were split. Western European countries opposed offeringMembership Action Plans (MAP) to Ukraine and Georgia, fearing it would unsettle Russia.[28] NATO refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia MAPs, but also issued a statement agreeing that "these countries will become members of NATO" at some point. Putin strongly opposed their NATO membership bids.[29]
Russia invaded Georgia in August 2008 and took control of the breakaway regions ofAbkhazia andSouth Ossetia, demonstrating Russia's willingness to use military force to attain its political objectives.[30] Political scientistPaul D'Anieri says the United States "was accused ofappeasement and naivete" over its reaction to the invasion.[31] TheWest's weak response in 2008—and later in 2014—contributed to Russia's assessment of Western warnings against 2022 invasion as not serious,[32][33] and, according to political scientist Samuel Ramani, encouraged further Russian aggression.[34]
Under pressure from Russia,[38] in November 2013, Ukrainian presidentViktor Yanukovych suddenly withdrew from signing the agreement.[39] This sparked a wave of massive protests, known as the "Euromaidan". The protesters opposed Russian interference, government corruption, abuse of power, and human rights violations, including newanti-protest laws.[40][41]
The protests would lead to theRevolution of Dignity. On 18–20 February 2014,more than 100 protesters were killed in clashes withBerkut special riot police; most of them were shot by snipers.[42] On 21 February, Yanukovych and the leaders of the opposition signedan agreement to bring about an interim unity government, urgent constitutional changes (which needed signed by the president), and early elections. However, Yanukovych fled the capital that evening and did not inform parliament of his whereabouts. The next day, Ukraine's parliament unanimouslyvoted to remove Yanukovych from office (about 73% of the parliament's 450 members voted).[43][44][45][46]
On 27 February, aninterim government was established and early presidential elections were scheduled. The following day, Yanukovych resurfaced in Russia and declared that he remained the president of Ukraine. Some political leaders in the mainly Russian-speakingeastern regions declared continuing loyalty to Yanukovych.[44][47]
From late February 2014, demonstrations by pro-Russian, separatist and counter-revolutionary groups took place in several cities ineastern andsouthern Ukraine.[48] The first protests were largely native expressions of discontent with the new Ukrainian government.[48][49] On 23 February, Ukraine's parliament adopted abill to revoke thestatus of Russian as an official state language. The bill was notenacted, but the proposal caused anger in the Russian-speaking regions of Ukraine.[50] These regions mostly consumed Russian-based media, which promoted the narrative that Ukraine's new government was an illegitimate "fascist junta" and thatethnic Russians were in imminent danger.[51][52]
Most of the protests were in theDonbas region. A national survey held in March–April 2014 found that 54% of respondents in the Donbas expressed various degrees of separatism, including 31% who wanted the region to completely separate from Ukraine.[53]
On 6 April 2014, hundreds of masked men stormed and seized weapons from theSecurity Service buildings in the cities ofDonetsk andLuhansk.[59] Protesters thenstormed and occupied the Donetsk regional government headquarters, raising the Russian flag and demanding a referendum on joining Russia.[60] The next day, the activists held a meeting in the building and proclaimed the "Donetsk People's Republic" an independent state.[59][61] On 29 April, armed pro-Russian activists stormed and occupied the Luhansk regional government headquarters, proclaiming the "Luhansk People's Republic".[62]
Causes
According to political scientistPaul D'Anieri, Russia had the following four causes to start its war with Ukraine in 2014, as well as for the2022 war:
Russia's desire to regain control of Ukraine and turn it into apuppet regime.
Russia's conception of itself as a great power entitled to asphere of influence over the former Soviet Republics.
The security dilemma in Europe, with Russia perceiving theexpansion of NATO as a threat, and other Eastern states desiring guarantees against Russian expansionism.
Movements of the Russian military to Ukraine's borders and into Crimea in February–March 2014
Different start-dates for the conflict have been identified. According to a number of scholars,[64][65][66] the war began with the February 2014Russian occupation of Crimea, in particular the 27 Februarystorming of the Crimean parliament.[67][68][69] In contrast the Ukrainian government has declared 26 February the "Day of Resistance to the Occupation of Crimea", as on that day in 2014 a Crimean Tatar rally against Russian occupation was held.[70] Some, including political scientistAndreas Umland, prefer 20 February – the day Russia supposedly issued orders to prepare forinvasion, which is also engraved on the RussianCrimea campaign medal.[71][72] Some analysts place the start of the conflict even earlier, including Dutch Professor of Military History Floribert Baudet who has stated that "Russia's war against Ukraine did not start in 2014 with the annexation of Crimea and the secession of Donetsk and Luhansk, much less so with the invasion of February, 2022."[73]
Analysts also differ over the nature of the conflict. Paul D'Anieri describes the events of the period as "a limited war in 2014, and then [a] much less limited war in 2022".[74] In contrast Ukrainian-American historianSerhii Plokhy stated in 2023 of the then-ongoing war that "I decline the temptation to identify the date of February 24, 2022, as its beginning, no matter the shock and drama of the all- out Russian assault on Ukraine, for the simple reason that the war began eight years earlier, on February 27, 2014".[65]
Russian troops surrounding the Ukrainian military base inPerevalne, 9 March 2014
On 27 February 2014,Russian soldiers without insignia began to occupy Crimea.[75][76][77] At first, Russia denied that the soldiers were theirs, instead claiming they were local "self-defense" units. Later, Putin admitted that they were Russian special forces, and said that he decided to "return" Crimea to Russia when therevolution happened.[78] Russia took advantage of the uncertainty in Ukraine immediately after the ousting of Yanukovych.[79]
The unmarked Russian soldiers seized the Crimean parliament and government buildings, as well as setting up checkpoints to restrict movement and cut off the Crimean peninsula from the rest of Ukraine.[80][81] While the armed men occupied Crimea's parliament, it dismissed theCrimean government and installed a pro-Russian government underSergey Aksyonov, whose party won only 4% of votes in the last election.[82] HistorianAndrew Wilson and journalistLuke Harding called this the "Crimeancoup".[83][84] The parliament then announced a referendum on Crimea's status. Russian rebel commanderIgor 'Strelkov' Girkin later admitted:
"Rebels assembled lawmakers to corral them into the hall so that they could vote. I was one of the commanders of those rebels. I saw that from the inside".[82]
On 1 March, theFederation Council of Russia approved the use of armed force in Ukraine.[85] Ukraine's prime minister,Arseniy Yatsenyuk, said that Russian military intervention would be the beginning of war,[86] and Ukraine's representative told the UN Security Council that Russia was committing "anact of aggression against the state of Ukraine".[87] Unmarked Russian special forces occupied airports and communications centers,[86] and blockaded Ukrainian military bases, such asthe Southern Naval Base. Russian commander Strelkov admitted that most Crimean authorities, police and army units remained loyal to Ukraine, even if some were reluctant to carry out Ukrainian authorities' orders.[82] Russiancyberattacks shut down websites of the Ukrainian government, news media, and social media. Cyberattacks also enabled Russian access to the mobile phones of Ukrainian officials and members of parliament, further disrupting communications.[88]
The referendum was held under Russian occupation on 16 March 2014. According to the Russian-installed authorities, the result was in favour of joining Russia. It annexed Crimea on 18 March 2014. Following this, Russian forces seized Ukrainian military bases in Crimea and captured their personnel. On 24 March, Ukraine ordered its remaining troops to withdraw.[89]
On 15 April, Ukraine's parliament declared Crimeatemporarily occupied by Russia.[90] Russia militarised the peninsula and made nuclear threats.[91] In response to the annexation, some NATO members began training the Ukrainian army.[92]
Russian-aligned troops occupying the Sloviansk city administration building, 14 April 2014
In April 2014, theanti-government protests in the Donbas developed into armed conflict betweenRussian-backed separatists and Ukraine. Russian citizens with links to its security forces had taken control of the separatist movement by this stage. Russia deployed its military near Ukraine's eastern border in late March, reaching 30,000–40,000 troops in early April.[93][52] This buildup was used to threaten escalation and hinder Ukraine's response,[52] forcing Ukraine to divert its military to its borders instead of the Donbas.[52]
Russian commander Igor 'Strelkov' Girkin, who admitted sparking the Donbas war in April 2014
On 12 April 2014, a fifty-man unit of pro-Russian militants seized the cities ofSloviansk andKramatorsk.[59] They had been sent from Russian-occupied Crimea andwore no insignia.[59] The heavily armed men were Russian Armed Forces "volunteers" under the command of formerGRU colonelIgor 'Strelkov' Girkin.[59][94] He said that this action sparked the war in eastern Ukraine:
I'm the one who pulled the trigger of this war. If our unit hadn't crossed the border, everything would have fizzled out, like inKharkiv orOdesa.[95][96][97]
The separatists were supported with weaponry, artillery, armored vehicles and volunteers from Russia, includingChechen andCossack fighters.[98][99][100][101] Putin gave legitimacy to the separatists when he described the Donbas as part of the historical imperial territory of "New Russia" (Novorossiya), and suggested it should never have become part of Ukraine.[102] The separatists then began attempting to create a new entity called "Novorossiya".[103][104]
In response, on 15 April the interim Ukrainian government launched an "Anti-Terrorist Operation" (ATO); however, Ukrainian forces were poorly prepared, and the operation soon stalled.[105] Russian separatist commander Strelkov said that Ukrainian forces were "extremely cautious" at first, as they did not know how Russia would respond.[96] By the end of April, Ukraine announced it had lost control of the provinces of Donetsk and Luhansk. It claimed to be on "full combat alert" against a possible Russian invasion and reinstated conscription to its armed forces.[106] During May, the Ukrainian campaign focused on containing the separatists and positioning the military for a decisive offensive once Ukraine's mobilisation had completed.[citation needed]
As conflict between the separatists and Ukraine escalated in May, Russia began to employ a "hybrid approach", combining disinformation tactics, irregular fighters, regular Russian troops, and conventional military support.[107][108][109] TheFirst Battle of Donetsk Airport was the first between Ukrainian and separatist forces that involved large numbers of Russian "volunteers".[110][111]: 15
Ukrainian response to Russian maneuvers, April–May 2014.
On 5 July 2014, Ukrainian forcesre-took Sloviansk and the pro-Russian forces retreated toDonetsk city. Russian commander Igor 'Strelkov' Girkin said that Donetsk was still relatively peaceful until then. He admitted responsibility for the shelling of the city by Ukrainian forces.[96]
On 17 July 2014, Russian-controlled forces killed 298 civilians when they shot down a passenger aircraft,Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, as it was flying over eastern Ukraine.[115] Investigations and the recovery of bodies began in the conflict zone as fighting continued.[116][117][118]
By the end of July, Ukrainian forces were pushing into cities, isolating Donetsk and attempting torestore control of the border. By 28 July, the strategic heights ofSavur-Mohyla were under Ukrainian control, along with the city ofDebaltseve, an important railroad hub.[119] These Ukrainian successes threatened the existence of the DPR and LPR statelets, promptingRussian cross-border shelling targeting Ukrainian troops on their own soil, from mid-July onwards.[120]
By August 2014, Ukrainian forces had regained a lot of the territory seized by the separatists.[121] Igor Girkin ('Strelkov') urged direct Russian military intervention, and said that the combat inexperience of his irregular forces, along with recruitment difficulties amongst the local population, had caused the setbacks. He stated, "Losing this war on the territory that President Vladimir Putin personally named New Russia would threaten the Kremlin's power and, personally, the power of the president".[122] Strelkov said that in early August, Russian soldiers, supposedly on "vacation" from the army, began to arrive in Donbas.[123] According to Nikolai Mitrokhin's estimates, by mid-August 2014 during theBattle of Ilovaisk, between 20,000 and 25,000 troops were fighting in the Donbas on the separatist side, and only 40–45% were "locals".[124]
Russia dispatched what it called a "humanitarian convoy" of trucks across the border on 22 August 2014. Ukraine's security service called this a "direct invasion" and said the trucks were being used to move weapons and bring the bodies of Russian soldiers out of Ukraine.[125]
Russia then began a more direct invasion of the Donbas.[121][126] On 24 August 2014,Amvrosiivka was occupied by Russian paratroopers,[127] supported by 250 armoured vehicles and artillery pieces.[128] On 25 August, a column of Russian military vehicles was reported to have crossed into Ukraine nearNovoazovsk on theAzov sea coast. It appeared headed towards Ukrainian-heldMariupol,[129][130][131][132][133] in an area that had not seen pro-Russian presence for weeks.[134] The following day, the Russian Defence Ministry said these soldiers had crossed the border "by accident".[135][136][137] Russian troops captured Novoazovsk[138] and began deporting Ukrainians who did not have an address registered within the city.[139] Pro-Ukrainian anti-war protests took place in Mariupol.[139][140] TheUN Security Council called an emergency meeting.[141]
Russian-backed forces attacking Iloviask, 23 August 2014
ThePskov-based76th Guards Air Assault Division of theRussian Airborne Forces allegedly entered Ukrainian territory in August and engaged in a skirmish nearLuhansk,[142][143] suffering 70–80 dead.[144] The Ukrainian Defence Ministry said that they had seized two of the unit's armoured vehicles near Luhansk, and reported destroying another three tanks and two armoured vehicles in other regions.[145]
Thespeaker of Russia's upper house of parliament and Russian state television channels acknowledged that Russian soldiers were in Ukraine, but referred to them as "volunteers" fighting for the "Russian world".[146][147] A reporter forNovaya Gazeta, an opposition newspaper in Russia, stated that the Russian military leadership paid soldiers to resign their commissions and fight in Ukraine in the early summer of 2014, and then began ordering soldiers into Ukraine.[148] Russian opposition MPLev Shlosberg made similar statements, although he said they were "regular Russian troops", disguised as units of the DPR and LPR.[149]
A map of the line of control and buffer zone established by the Minsk Protocol on 5 September 2014
On 3 September 2014, Poroshenko said he and Putin had reached a "permanent ceasefire" agreement.[150] Russia denied this, denying that it was a party to the conflict, adding that "they only discussed how to settle the conflict".[151][152] Poroshenko then recanted.[153][154] On 5 September Russia's Permanent OSCE RepresentativeAndrey Kelin, said that it was natural that pro-Russian separatists "are going to liberate"Mariupol. Ukrainian forces stated that Russian intelligence groups had been spotted in the area. Kelin said 'there might be volunteers over there.'[155] On 4 September 2014, a NATO officer said that several thousand regular Russian forces were operating in Ukraine.[156]
On 5 September 2014, theMinsk Protocol ceasefire agreement drew a line of demarcation between Ukraine and separatist-controlled portions of Donetsk and Luhansk Oblasts.
Despite the Minsk ceasefire, sporadic clashes continued aroundDonetsk International Airport, the last part of Donetsk city held by Ukrainian troops. On 28 September, Russian-backed forces began anoffensive to capture the airport. Ukrainian troops were besieged in the terminal and control tower. They were given the nickname "Cyborgs", as they withstood repeated Russian attacks in grim battlefield conditions.[157] The siege lasted throughout winter and most of the airport was destroyed by shelling. Eventually, on 21 January 2015, rebels took the airport with help from Russian special forces.[158]
On 7 and 12 November, NATO officials reconfirmed the Russian presence, citing 32 tanks, 16howitzer cannons and 30 trucks of troops entering the country.[159] NATO said it had seen an increase in Russian tanks, artillery pieces and other heavy military equipment in Ukraine and renewed its call for Moscow to withdraw its forces.[160] TheChicago Council on Global Affairs stated that Russian separatists enjoyed technical advantages over the Ukrainian army since the large inflow of advanced military systems in mid-2014: effective anti-aircraft weapons ("Buk", MANPADS) suppressed Ukrainian air strikes, Russian drones provided intelligence, and Russian secure communications system disrupted Ukrainian communications intelligence. The Russian side employedelectronic warfare systems that Ukraine lacked. Similar conclusions about the technical advantage of the Russian separatists were voiced by the Conflict Studies Research Centre.[161]
Pro-Russian rebels inDonetsk in May 2015. Ukraine declared the Russian-backed separatist republics to beterrorist organisations.[162]
In January 2015,Donetsk,Luhansk, andMariupol represented the three battle fronts.[163] Poroshenko described a dangerous escalation on 21 January amid reports of more than 2,000 additional Russian troops, 200 tanks and armed personnel carriers crossing the border. He abbreviated his visit to theWorld Economic Forum because of his concerns.[164]
A new package of measures to end the conflict, known asMinsk II, was agreed on 12 February 2015, with a ceasefire due to begin on 15 February.[165]
Despite the ceasefire, Russian-backed forces launched anoffensive on Debaltseve, a strategic town andsalient held by Ukrainian forces. By 18 February 2015, the 8,000 Ukrainian troops had been almost surrounded and were forced to retreat from Debaltseve under relentless fire, suffering heavy casualties. Russian-backed rebel leaderAlexander Zakharchenko had said his forces would not observe the ceasefire in Debaltseve, claiming it rightfully belonged to them.[166] Ukraine, the EU and the US accused Russia and its proxies of breaking the ceasefire, and said that the Russian military itself took part in the offensive.[167]
A pro-Russian rebel looking though a firing port near Donetsk, May 2015
After the Minsk agreements, there were few changes in territorial control, while the war settled into statictrench warfare around the agreed line of contact, marked by artillery duels and special forces operations. Hostilities never ceased for a substantial period of time, but continued at a low level despite repeated attempts at ceasefire. Both sides began fortifying their position by building networks oftrenches,bunkers andtunnels.[169][170] The relatively static conflict was labelled "frozen" by some,[171] though fighting never completely stopped.[172][173] Between 2014 and 2022 there were 29ceasefires, each agreed to remain in force indefinitely. However, none of them lasted more than two weeks.[174]
OSCE observers overseeing the withdrawal of Ukrainian heavy weaponry from the warzone, March 2015
US and international officials continued to report the active presence of Russian military in eastern Ukraine, including in the Debaltseve area.[175] In 2015, Russian separatist forces were estimated to number around 36,000 troops (compared to 34,000 Ukrainian), of whom 8,500–10,000 were Russian soldiers. Additionally, around 1,000GRU troops were operating in the area.[176] Another 2015 estimate held that Ukrainian forces outnumbered Russian forces 40,000 to 20,000.[177] In 2017, on average one Ukrainian soldier died in combat every three days,[178] with an estimated 6,000 Russian and 40,000 separatist troops in the region.[179][180]
A Ukrainian soldier in a trench in the Donbas, 2015Ukrainian presidentPetro Poroshenko inspects Ukrainian positions at the frontline, June 2016Buildings damaged by shellfire near Avdiivka, January 2017
TheBattle of Avdiivka erupted on 29 January 2017 and lasted for several days. It saw the biggest and deadliest clashes in over a year, with more than thirty people killed and heavy artillery barrages. It began hours after newly elected US presidentDonald Trump spoke by telephone with the Russian president Putin. Some in the Ukrainian government believed the Russian-backed rebels were emboldened by Trump's election.Kostiatyn Yeliseieiv, deputy head of the Ukrainian presidential administration, said it was "a test from the Russian side, of the reaction of the new American administration".[181]
UkrainianT-64 tanks in the Donbas during the 'static war' phase
More than 110 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in the conflict in 2019.[182] In May 2019, newly elected Ukrainian presidentVolodymyr Zelenskyy took office promising to end the war in Donbas.[182] In December 2019, Ukraine and pro-Russian separatists began swappingprisoners of war. Around 200 prisoners were exchanged on 29 December 2019.[183][184][185][186] In December 2019 Ukraine and Russia agreed to implement a ceasefire. The two sides agreed to swap prisoners of war and disengage military forces in several regions. Russia and Ukraine could not agree on the issues of the withdrawal of Russian-backed troops and the elections in the separatist-held regions.[187]
According to Ukrainian authorities, 50 Ukrainian soldiers were killed in 2020.[188] Between 2019 and 2021, Russia issued over 650,000internal Russian passports to Ukrainians.[189][190] There were 27 conflict-related civilian deaths in 2019, 26 deaths in 2020, and 25 deaths in 2021, over half of them from mines andunexploded ordnance.[191]
From March to April 2021, Russia began a major military build-up near the Ukrainian border, followed by a second build-up from October 2021 onward, in both Russia and Belarus.[192] Throughout, Russia said it was only holdingmilitary exercises, and Russia's government repeatedly denied it had plans to attack Ukraine.[193][194]
In early December 2021, following Russian denials, the US released intelligence of Russian invasion plans, including satellite photographs showing Russian troops and equipment near the border.[195] The intelligence reported a Russian list of key sites and individuals to be killed or neutralised.[196] The US released multiple reports that accurately predicted the invasion plans.[196]
In the months preceding the invasion, Russian officials accused Ukraine of inciting tensions,Russophobia, and repressingRussian speakers. They made multiple security demands of Ukraine, NATO, and other EU countries. On 9 December 2021 Putin said that "Russophobia is a first step towardsgenocide".[197][198] Putin's claims were dismissed by the international community,[199] and Russian claims of genocide were rejected as baseless.[200][201][202] In a 21 February speech,[203] Putin questioned the legitimacy of the Ukrainian state, repeating an inaccurate claim that "Ukraine never had a tradition of genuine statehood".[204] He incorrectly stated thatVladimir Lenin had created Ukraine, by carving a separate Soviet Republic out of what Putin said was Russian land, and thatNikita Khrushchev "tookCrimea away from Russia for some reason and gave it to Ukraine" in 1954.[205]
A US intelligence assessment map and imagery on Russian military movement nearby the Ukrainian border, as on 3 December 2021. It assessed that Russia had deployed about 70,000 military personnel mostly about 100–200 kilometres (62–124 mi) from the Ukrainian border, with an assessment this could be increased to 175,000 personnel. Published byThe Washington Post.[206]
During the second build-up, the Russian government demanded NATO end all activity in its Eastern European member states and ban Ukraine or anyformer Soviet state from ever joining NATO, among other demands.[207] A treaty to prevent Ukraine joining NATO would go against the alliance's "open door" policy and the right of countries to choose their own security,[208] although NATO had made no progress on Ukraine's requests to join.[209] NATO Secretary GeneralJens Stoltenberg replied that "Russia has no say" on whether Ukraine joins, and that "Russia has no right to establish asphere of influence to try to control their neighbors".[210] NATO offered to improve communication with Russia and discuss limits on missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops from Ukraine's borders,[211] but Russia did not withdraw.
While Russian troops massed on Ukraine's borders, Russia's proxy forces launched thousands of attacks on Ukrainian troops in the Donbas.[212]Observers from theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which also includes Ukraine and Russia, reported more than 90,000 ceasefire violations throughout 2021; the vast majority in Russian-controlled territory.[213]
Fighting in Donbas escalated significantly from 17 February 2022 onwards.[214] The Ukrainians and the pro-Russian separatists each accused the other of attacks.[215][216] There was a sharp increase in artillery shelling by the Russian-led militants in Donbas. Ukraine and its supporters believed this to be an attempt to provoke the Ukrainian army to retaliate, to give Russia a pretext for invading.[217][218][219] Ukraine's president Zelenskyy said that his military would not respond to the provocations.[220] Separatist leaders warned that Ukraine was about to launch an offensive, but gave no evidence, andThe Guardian noted that it would be "exceedingly risky" for Ukraine to assault the Donbas while Russian troops were massed on its borders.[220] On 18 February, the Donetsk and Luhansk people's republics orderedemergency evacuations of civilians,[221][222][223] although observers noted that full evacuations would take months.[224] The Russian government intensified itsdisinformation campaign, with Russian state media airing videos on a nearly hourly basis purporting to show Ukrainian forces attacking Russia.[225] Evidence showed that Russia was stagingfalse flag attacks.[225][226][227]
Putin's address to the nation on 21 February (English subtitles available)
On 21 February at 22:35 (UTC+3),[228] Putin announced that the Russian government woulddiplomatically recognise the Donetsk and Luhansk people's republics.[229] The same evening, Putin directed that Russian troops deploy into Donbas, in what Russia referred to as a "peacekeeping mission".[230][231] On 22 February, theFederation Council unanimously authorised Putin to use military force outside Russia.[232] In response, Zelenskyy ordered the conscription of armyreservists;[233] The following day, Ukraine's parliament proclaimed a 30-day nationwidestate of emergency and ordered the mobilisation of all reservists.[234][235][236] Russia began to evacuate its embassy in Kyiv.[237]
On the night of 23 February,[238] Zelenskyy gavea speech in Russian in which he appealed to the citizens of Russia to prevent war.[239][240] He rejected Russia's claims about neo-Nazis and stated that he had no intention of attacking the Donbas.[241]
Animated map of Russia's invasion of Ukraine through 5 December 2022 (click to play animation)Kyiv's "Wall of Memory" with photos of Ukrainian soldiers killed in the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2022.[242]
Russian attacks were initially launched on anorthern front fromBelarus towards Kyiv,a southern front fromCrimea, anda south-eastern front fromLuhansk andDonetsk and towardsKharkiv.[250][251] In the northern front, amidst heavy losses and strong Ukrainian resistance surrounding Kyiv, Russia's advance stalled in March, and by April its troops retreated. On 8 April, Russia placed its forces in southern and eastern Ukraine under the command of GeneralAleksandr Dvornikov, and some units withdrawn from the north were redeployed to the Donbas.[252] On 19 April, Russia launched arenewed attack across a 500 kilometres (300 mi) long front extending from Kharkiv to Donetsk and Luhansk.[253] By 13 May, a Ukraine counter-offensive had driven back Russian forces near Kharkiv. By 20 May,Mariupol fell to Russian troops following a prolongedsiege of theAzovstal steel works.[254][255] Russian forces continued to bomb both military and civilian targets far from the frontline.[256][257] The war caused the largest refugee andhumanitarian crisis within Europe since theYugoslav Wars in the 1990s;[258][259] the UN described it as the fastest-growing such crisis since World War II.[260] In the first week of the invasion, the UN reported over a million refugees had fled Ukraine; this subsequently rose to over 7,405,590 by 24 September, a reduction from over eight million due to some refugees' return.[261][262]
Remnants of adestroyed Russian Army column on 27 February inBucha
Ukrainian forces launched counteroffensives inthe south in August 2022, and inthe northeast in September 2022. On 30 September, Russiaannexed four oblasts of Ukraine which it had partially conquered during the invasion.[269] This annexation was generally unrecognised and condemned by the countries of the world.[270] After Putin announced that he would begin conscription drawn from the 300,000 citizens with military training and potentially the pool of about 25 million Russians who could be eligible for conscription, one-way tickets out of the country nearly or completely sold out.[271][272] The Ukrainian offensive in the northeast successfully recaptured the majority ofKharkiv Oblast in September. In the course of the southern counteroffensive, Ukraine retook the city ofKherson in November and Russian forces withdrew to the east bank of the Dnieper River.[273]
As of August 2023, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldierskilled or wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine was nearly 500,000.[274] In November 2023, the UN said that more than 10,000 civilians had been killed during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, with about half the deaths in the three months prior to the report taking place far behind the front lines. The UN attributed the deaths far behind the front to Russian use of long-range missiles and explosions of abandoned ordinance.[275] According to a declassified US intelligence assessment, as of December 2023, Russia had lost 315,000 of the 360,000 troops that made up Russia's pre-invasion ground force, and 2,200 of the 3,500 tanks.[276]
Russian campaigns and Ukrainian Kursk offensive (2023–present)
Between December 2023 and May 2024, Russia was assessed to have increased its drone and missile attacks, firing harder-to-hit weapons, such as ballistic missiles.[277] By the same measure, Ukraine forces were seen to be low on ammunition, particularly the Patriot systems that have been "its best defense against such attacks".[277]
In August 2024, the Ukrainian Armed Forceslaunched an incursion into Russia'sKursk Oblast and, as reported by the Ukrainian side, in a few days captured an area of up to 350 square kilometers.[278] By 19 August, Ukraine had captured hundreds of Russian soldiers during the incursion.[279]
In late October 2024, the US said it had seen evidence thatNorth Korea had sent 3,000 soldiers to Russia for possible deployment to Ukraine. On 28 October, NATO chiefMark Rutte confirmed earlier Ukrainian intelligence that North Korean troops had been deployed to Kursk Oblast, and the Pentagon reported an increased number of 10,000 North Korean soldiers sent to train in Russia and fight in the war.[280][281][282] On 13 November, both the US and South Korea confirmed that North Korean troops had begun engaging in combat against Ukrainian forces in the Kursk region.[283][284][285] On 26 April 2025, Russia officially confirmed the participation of North Korean troops, noting their ″significant assistance″ to the Russian military in Kursk, which on the same day Russia claimed to have retaken.[286]
Executed Ukrainian civilians with wrists bound in plastic restraints, in a basement inBucha, 3 April 2022
Violations of human rights andatrocity crimes have occurred during the war. From 2014 to 2021, there were more than 3,000 civiliancasualties, with most occurring in 2014 and 2015.[287] The right of movement was impeded for the inhabitants of the conflict zone.[288] Arbitrary detention was practiced by both sides in the first years of the conflict. It decreased after 2016 in government-held areas, while in the separatist-held ones it continued.[289] Investigations into the abuses committed by both sides made little progress.[290][291]
Since the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Russian authorities and armed forces have committed multiple war crimes in the form of deliberate attacks against civilian targets,[292][293] massacres of civilians, torture and rape of women and children,[294][295] and manyindiscriminate attacks[296][297] in densely populated areas. After the Russian withdrawal from areas north ofKyiv, overwhelming evidence of war crimes by Russian forces was discovered. In particular, in the city ofBucha, evidence emerged of amassacre of civilians perpetrated by Russian troops, including torture, mutilation, rape, looting and deliberate killings of civilians.[298][299][300] TheUN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine (OHCHR) has documented the murder of at least 73 civilians—mostly men, but also women and children—in Bucha.[301] More than 1,200 bodies of civilians were found in the Kyiv region after Russian forces withdrew, some of them summarily executed. There were reports of forced deportations of thousands of civilians, including children, to Russia, mainly from Russian-occupied Mariupol,[302][303] as well assexual violence, including cases of rape, sexual assault and gang rape,[304] and deliberate killing of Ukrainian civilians by Russian forces.[305] Russia has also systematicallyattacked Ukrainian medical infrastructure, with theWorld Health Organization reporting 1,422 attacks as of 21 December 2023.[306] Many Russian soldiers confessed of raping, looting and torturing Ukrainian civilians and soldiers in intercepted phone calls which were regularly published online and showcased in a 2024 documentary filmIntercepted.[307]
Ukrainian forces have also been accused of committing various war crimes, including mistreatment of detainees.[308][309]
In 2024, the UN Human Rights Office reported that Russia is committing severehuman rights violations in occupied Ukraine, including arbitrary detentions,enforced disappearances, torture, crackdown onprotests andfreedom of speech, enforcedRussification, indoctrination of children, and suppression of Ukrainian language and culture.[310] Ukrainians have beencoerced into taking Russian passports and becoming Russian citizens. Those who refuse are denied healthcare and other rights,[310] and can be imprisoned as a "foreign citizen". Ukrainian men who take Russian citizenship can be drafted to fight against the Ukrainian army.[311] According toArtem Lysohor, Ukraine's head of the Luhansk Regional Military Administration, starting from May 2024, mothers who give birth in Russian-occupied Luhansk must prove that one of the newborn's parents have Russian citizenship, otherwise they will not be allowed to leave the hospital with their child. In addition, Russian occupation officials attempt to militarise and indoctrinate Ukrainian youth by developing a new textbook in accordance with Russian educational standards, and children participation in Russian ″military-patriotic games″.[312]
In August 2024, UN official Danielle Bell claimed that 95% of Ukrainianprisoners of war had suffered from Russian torture (e.g. beating, electric shock, or being stripped naked).[313]
On 19 September 2023,CNN reported that it was "likely" thatUkrainianSpecial Operations Forces were behind a series of drone strikes and a ground operation directed against the Wagner-backed RSF near Khartoum on 8 September.[314]Kyrylo Budanov, chief of theMain Directorate of Intelligence of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine, stated in an interview on 22 September that he could neither deny nor confirm the involvement of Ukraine in the conflict in Sudan,[315] but said that Ukraine would punish Russian war criminals anywhere in the world.[316]
In September and October 2023, a series of fragments were reported found in Romania, a NATO member state, which were suspected to have been the remains of a Russian drone attack near theRomanian border with Ukraine.[317][318]
War over natural resources
In August 2012, the Ukrainian government ofMykola Azarov, who, like the then Ukrainian presidentViktor Yanukovych, maintained good relations with the Russian leadership, commissioned a consortium includingExxon Mobil,Royal Dutch Shell,OMV Romania and the Ukrainian state-owned NAK Nadra Ukrainy to extract oil and natural gas in the Ukrainian part of theBlack Sea.[319][320] In 2013, Italy's largest oil and gas producer,Eni, was granted a license to extract oil and gas on the east coast ofCrimea. In 2014, it was reported that ifCrimea were annexed, the production licenses could be reassigned and previous license holders would find themselves in alegal grey area.[320]
Economic interests were also a motive for Russia's attack on Ukraine and itsannexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts.Lithium deposits in theDonbas and Ukraine's grain wealth would mean a "monopoly on the world market" for Russia if it took over Ukraine.[321] Although the US government estimates that Russia's economic losses from the war and Western sanctions will amount to around $1.3 trillion by 2025, and the direct financial expenditure for conducting the war is estimated at $250 billion (as of autumn 2024) - costs that Russia could not have foreseen. However, according to a study published in summer 2022 by the Canadian think tank SecDev, Russia controlled energy reserves, metals and minerals worth at least $12.4 trillion in the occupied territories in Donbas. The total value of national raw material stocks in Ukraine is estimated at over $26 trillion.[322] The value of lithium andrare earths in Ukraine is estimated at $11.5 trillion.[323] In January 2024, the Russian occupation administration in Donetsk Oblast granted the RussianMinistry of Ecology and Natural Resources a "permission" to mine lithium in the Shevchenko deposit near Kurakhovo, where the lithium deposit is estimated to be worth hundreds of billions of US dollars.[322]
The green transformation orenergy transition in Europe is threatening Russia's usual business and existence model, the trade infossil fuels. A few months before the start of the Russian invasion, theEuropean Union (EU) and Ukraine had signed a Green Deal or a transformation program for Ukraine, partly because theUkrainian economy was at the time the most energy-intensive in the world with the most ineffective and expensive thermal power generation. In addition, 22 of the 30 raw materials that the EU classified as strategically important are available in large quantities in Ukraine. Russia could only benefit from the energy transition in Europe if it acquired the resources and infrastructure on Ukrainian soil. Europe would then be even more dependent on Russia. If Russia were to achieve its war goals, Russia could steal and gain more than it would lose in peace through reduced exports to Europe.[322][323]
Until 2014 Ukraine was the main transit route forRussian natural gas sold to Europe, which earned Ukraine about US$3 billion a year in transit fees, making it the country's most lucrative export service.[324] Following Russia's launch of theNord Stream pipeline, which bypasses Ukraine, gas transit volumes steadily decreased.[324] Following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in February 2014, severe tensions extended to the gas sector.[325][326] The subsequent outbreak of war in the Donbas region forced the suspension of a project to develop Ukraine's ownshale gas reserves at theYuzivska gas field, which had been planned as a way to reduce Ukrainian dependence on Russian gas imports.[327] Eventually, the EU commissioner for energyGünther Oettinger was called in to broker a deal securing supplies to Ukraine and transit to the EU.[328]
In 2015, Russian state media reported that Russia planned to completely abandongas supplies to Europe through Ukraine after 2018.[329][330] Russia's state-owned energy giantGazprom had already substantially reduced the volumes of gas transited across Ukraine, and expressed its intention to reduce the level further by means of transit-diversification pipelines (Turkish Stream, Nord Stream, etc.).[331] Gazprom and Ukraine agreed to a five-year deal on Russian gas transit to Europe at the end of 2019.[332][333]
In 2020, theTurkStream natural gas pipeline running from Russia toTurkey changed the regional gas flows in South-East Europe by diverting thetransit through Ukraine and the Trans Balkan Pipeline system.[334][335]
In May 2021, theBiden administration waived Trump'sCAATSA sanctions on the company behind Russia'sNord Stream 2 gas pipeline to Germany.[336][337] Ukrainian president Zelenskyy said he was "surprised" and "disappointed" byJoe Biden's decision.[338] In July 2021, the U.S. urged Ukraine not to criticise a forthcoming agreement with Germany over the pipeline.[339][340]
In July 2021, Biden and German ChancellorAngela Merkel concluded a deal that the U.S. might trigger sanctions if Russia used Nord Stream as a "political weapon". The deal aimed to prevent Poland and Ukraine from being cut off from Russian gas supplies. Ukraine will get a $50 million loan for green technology until 2024 and Germany will set up a billion dollar fund to promote Ukraine's transition togreen energy to compensate for the loss of the gas-transit fees. The contract for transiting Russian gas through Ukraine will be prolonged until 2034, if the Russian government agrees.[341][342][343]
In August 2021, Zelenskyy warned that the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline between Russia and Germany was "a dangerous weapon, not only for Ukraine but for the whole of Europe."[344][345] In September 2021, Ukraine'sNaftogaz CEOYuriy Vitrenko accused Russia of usingnatural gas as a "geopolitical weapon".[346] Vitrenko stated that "A joint statement from the United States and Germany said that if the Kremlin used gas as a weapon, there would be an appropriate response. We are now waiting for the imposition of sanctions on a 100% subsidiary of Gazprom, the operator of Nord Stream 2."[347]
On 7 February 2022, at a joint conference with German Chancellor Olaf Scholz, Biden said that if Russia invades Ukraine, the US would ″bring an end″ to Nordstream 2.[348][349]
On 26 September 2022, a series of underwater explosions and consequentgas leaks occurred on theNord Stream 1 (NS1) andNord Stream 2 (NS2)natural gas pipelines.[350] The investigations by Sweden and Denmark described the explosions as sabotage,[351][352][353][354] and were closed without identifying perpetrators in February 2024.[355][356] The German government refused to publish the preliminary results of its own investigation in July 2024.[357]
Hybrid warfare
The Russo-Ukrainian conflict has also included elements ofhybrid warfare using non-traditional means.Cyberwarfare has been used byRussia in operations including successful attacks on the Ukrainian power gridin December 2015 andin December 2016, which was the first successful cyber attack on a power grid,[358] and theMass hacker supply-chain attack in June 2017, which the US claimed was the largest known cyber attack.[359] In retaliation, Ukrainian operations have included theSurkov Leaks in October 2016 which released 2,337 e-mails in relation to Russian plans for seizing Crimea from Ukraine and fomenting separatist unrest in Donbas.[360] TheRussian information war against Ukraine has been another front of hybrid warfare waged by Russia.
The Russian statefalsely claims that Ukraine's government and society are dominated byneo-Nazism, invoking the history ofcollaboration in German-occupied Ukraine duringWorld War II.[364][365][366][367] These Nazi allegations are widely rejected as untrue and part of a disinformation campaign to justify the invasion.[368][369][370][371] Some of the world's leading historians of Nazism and the Holocaust put out a statement rejecting the claims, which was signed by hundreds of other historians and scholars of the subject. It says:
We strongly reject the Russian government's ... equation of the Ukrainian state with the Nazi regime to justify its unprovoked aggression. This rhetoric is factually wrong, morally repugnant and deeply offensive to the memory of millions of victims of Nazism and those who courageously fought against it.[372]
Ukraine has afar-right fringe like most countries, including theAzov Movement andRight Sector,[373][365] but analysts say that Russia's government and mainstream media greatly exaggerate its size and influence.[374][364] Ukraine's president Zelenskyy is Jewish, his grandfather served in theSoviet army fighting against the Nazis,[375] and three of his ancestors were killed inthe Holocaust.[374] In an attempt to drum-up support for the war among its citizens, Russian propaganda has framed it as a continuation of the Soviet Union's "Great Patriotic War" against Nazi Germany.[376][377] Some commentators point out that Russia claims to be "denazifying" Ukraine despite Russian neo-Nazi groups (such asRusich) taking part in the war, and despite Putin's Russia being likened to a fascist state (seeRuscism).[378][379][380]
Pro-Kremlin TV and radio hostVladimir Solovyov voiced support for his country's invasion of Ukraine.[381]Ukrainian protester with a poster portraying Russian presidents (Putin and Medvedev) as Nazis in 2014Z symbolflash mob inKhabarovsk
Putin called Russians and Ukrainians "one people" and claimed there is "no historical basis" for the "idea of Ukrainian people as a nation separate from the Russians".[382] Putin repeatedly denied Ukraine'sright to exist, claiming that it was created by the RussianBolsheviks and that it never had "real statehood".[383] A poll conducted in April 2022 by "Rating" found that the vast majority (91%) of Ukrainians do not support the thesis that "Russians and Ukrainians are one people".[384] In 2020,Vladislav Surkov, who served as an adviser to Putin on Ukraine, said "There is no Ukraine. There is Ukrainianism ... it is a specific disorder of the mind".[385][386]Dmitry Medvedev, deputy chairman of theSecurity Council of Russia and former Russian president, publicly wrote that "Ukraine is NOT a country, but artificially collected territories" and thatUkrainian "is NOT a language" but a "mongrel dialect" of Russian.[387] In 2024, Medvedev called Ukraine part of Russia[388] and said the Russian Army will seize what he called the "Russian cities" ofKyiv andOdesa.[389] Medvedev has also said that Ukraine should not exist in any form and that Russia will continue to wage war against any independent Ukrainian state.[390] Moreover, Medvedev warned that Russia woulduse a nuclear weapon if the2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive succeeded.[391] He said Ukrainians had to choose between joining Russia or "death".[392]
Fake stories have been used to provoke public outrage against Ukraine. In April 2014, a Russian news channel showed a man saying he was attacked by a fascist Ukrainian gang, while another channel showed the same man claiming to be a Ukrainian funding far-right anti-Russia radicals.[393][394] A third segment portrayed the man as a neo-Nazi surgeon.[395] In July 2014,Channel One Russia broadcast a fake story about a 3-year-old Russian boy who wasallegedly crucified by Ukrainian nationalists.[396][397][394][398] Russian state media reported mass graves full of ethnic Russians in eastern Ukraine. Amnesty International investigated these claims in 2014 and instead found isolated incidents of extrajudicial executions by both sides.[399] Russian state news outlets have sometimes aired stories about alleged Ukrainian atrocities using footage from other unrelated conflicts.[398][400]
The Russian censorship apparatusRoskomnadzor ordered the country's media to use information only from Russian state sources or else face fines and blocks,[404] and ordered media and schools to describe the war as a "special military operation".[405] On 4 March 2022, Putin signed into law a bill introducingprison sentences of up to 15 years for those who publish "fake news" about the Russian military and its operations,[406] leading to some media outlets to stop reporting on Ukraine.[407] Russia's opposition politicianAlexei Navalny said the "monstrosity of lies" in theRussian state media "is unimaginable. And, unfortunately, so is its persuasiveness for those who have no access to alternative information."[408] He tweeted that "warmongers" among Russian state media personalities "should be treated as war criminals. From the editors-in-chief to the talk show hosts to the news editors, [they] should be sanctioned now and tried someday."[409]
Islamic State claimed responsibility for the 22 MarchCrocus City Hall attack, a terrorist attack in a music venue inKrasnogorsk, Moscow Oblast, Russia, and published a corroborating video.[410] Putin and the Russian security service, theFSB, blamed Ukraine for the attack, without evidence.[411] On 3 April 2024, Russia'sDefense Ministry announced that "around 16,000 citizens" had signed military contracts in the last 10 days to fight as contract soldiers in the war against Ukraine, with most of them saying they were motivated to "avenge those killed" in the Crocus City Hall attack.[412]
NAFO (North Atlantic Fella Organization), a loose cadre of onlineshitposters vowing to fight Russian disinformation, gained notoriety after June 2022.[413]
In June 2025, despite months ofpeace negotiations in the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Putin declared that "I consider the Russian and Ukrainian people to beone nation. In this sense, all of Ukraine is ours" and continued threatening to use nuclear weapons on Ukraine.[414]
The 2020 consecration ceremony of theMain Cathedral of the Russian Armed Forces, which previously had a mosaic depicting the 2014 annexation of Crimea and featured Putin and Shoigu, but it was later removed[415]
TheRussian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) and its hierarchPatriarch Kirill of Moscow have shown their full support of the war against Ukraine.[416] The Russian Orthodox Church officially deems the invasion of Ukraine to be a "holy war".[417] During theWorld Russian People's Council in March 2024, the Russian Orthodox Church approved a document stating that this "holy war" was to defend "Holy Russia" and to protect the world fromglobalism andthe West, which it said had "fallen intoSatanism".[417] The document further stated that all of Ukraine should come under Russia'ssphere of influence, and thatUkrainians andBelarusians "should be recognised only assub-ethnic groups of theRussians".[417] Not one of the approximately 400 Russian Orthodox Church bishops in Russia has spoken out against the war.[418] Patriarch Kirill also issued a prayer for victory in the war.[419]
The role of the Russian Orthodox Church in advancing Putin's war messaging is a vivid illustration of the complex interplay between religion and politics.[420] A Russia expert and fellow of Germany's University of Bremen, told Al Jazeera that the ROC's participation in the war means it "faces the prospect of losing its 'universal character' and clout, and of reducing its borders to those of [Russian President Vladimir] Putin's political empire".[421]
On 27 March 2024 theWorld Russian People's Council took place in theCathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow where was adopted a "Nakaz" (decree) of the council "The Present and the Future of the Russian World".[422] According to some experts such as the ROC protodeacon Andrei Kurayev it has similarities with the program articles of theGerman Christians.[423] The decree talks about the so-called "Special Military Operation" in Ukraine, development of the Russian World globally and other issues.[424]
The conflict has harmed relations between Russia and theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), adefensive alliance of European and North American states. Russia and NATO had co-operated untilRussia annexed Crimea 2014.[425] In his February 2022 speeches justifying the invasion of Ukraine, Putinfalsely claimed that NATO was building up military infrastructure in Ukraine and threatening Russia, forcing him to order an invasion.[426] Putin warned that NATO would use Ukraine to launch a surprise attack on Russia.[427] Russian Foreign MinisterSergey Lavrov characterised the conflict as aproxy war started by NATO.[428] He said: "We don't think we're at war with NATO ... Unfortunately, NATO believes it is at war with Russia".[429]
NATO says it is not at war with Russia; its official policy is that it does not seek confrontation, but rather its members support Ukraine in "its right to self-defense, as enshrined in theUN Charter".[425] NATO condemned Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine in "the strongest possible terms", and calls it "the biggest security threat in a generation". It led to the deployment of additional NATO units in its eastern member states.[430] Former CIA directorLeon Panetta told the ABC that the U.S. is 'without question' involved in a proxy war with Russia.[431]Lawrence Freedman wrote that calling Ukraine a NATO "proxy" wrongly implied that "Ukrainians are only fighting because NATO put them up to it, rather than because of the more obvious reason that they have been subjected to a vicious invasion".[432]
Steven Pifer argues that Russia's own aggressive actions since 2014 have done the most to push Ukraine towards the West and NATO.[433] Russia's invasion ledFinland to join NATO, doubling the length of Russia's border with NATO.[434] Putin said that Finland's membership was not a threat, unlike Ukraine's, "but the expansion of military infrastructure into this territory would certainly provoke our response".[435] An article published by theInstitute for the Study of War concluded:
Putin didn't invade Ukraine in 2022 because he feared NATO. He invaded because he believed that NATO was weak, that his efforts to regain control of Ukraine by other means had failed, and that installing a pro-Russian government in Kyiv would be safe and easy. His aim was not to defend Russia against some non-existent threat but rather to expand Russia's power, eradicate Ukraine's statehood, and destroy NATO.[436]
Countering claims that NATO started and is waging a proxy war against Russia, it is pointed out that NATO states only sent Ukraine military aid in response to Russian aggression. NATO states have actually been slow in sending Ukraine offensive weaponry, and they prevented Ukraine from firing those weapons into Russia.[437] It was not until May 2024, more than two years into the invasion, that NATO states allowed Ukraine to fire Western-supplied weapons at military targets inside Russia, and only then in self-defense.[438] NATO has refused Ukrainian calls to enforce ano-fly zone over Ukraine,[432] and the US told Ukraine to stop attacking refineries andearly-warning radars in Russia.[439][440]
When theRussian occupation of Crimea began, Russia had roughly 12,000 military personnel from theBlack Sea Fleet,[52] in several locations in theCrimean peninsula such as Sevastopol,Kacha,Hvardiiske, Simferopol Raion,Sarych, and others. In 2005 a dispute broke out between Russia and Ukraine over control of theSarych cape lighthouse near Yalta, and a number of other beacons.[441][442] Russian presence was allowed by thebasing and transit agreement with Ukraine. Under this agreement, the Russian military in Crimea was constrained to a maximum of 25,000 troops. Russia was required to respect the sovereignty of Ukraine, honour its legislation, not interfere in the internal affairs of the country, and show their "military identification cards" when crossing the international border.[443] Early in the conflict, the agreement's generous troop limit allowed Russia to significantly strengthen its military presence, deploy special forces and other required capabilities to conduct the operation in Crimea, under the pretext of addressing security concerns.[52]
According to the original treaty on the division of the SovietBlack Sea Fleet signed in 1997, Russia was allowed to have its military bases in Crimea until 2017, after which it would evacuate all military units including its portion of the Black Sea Fleet from theAutonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol. On 21 April 2010, former Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych signed a new deal with Russia, known as theKharkiv Pact, to resolve the2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute. The pact extended Russia's stay in Crimea to 2042, with an option to renew.[444]
Non-state actors and mercenaries
On 4 August 2025, Ukrainian presidentVolodymyr Zelensky alleged that foreign mercenaries, including individuals from Pakistan and China, were fighting alongside Russian forces in northeastern Ukraine. During a visit to the frontline in theKharkiv region, Zelensky stated, "Our warriors in this sector are reporting the participation of mercenaries from China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, and African countries in the war. We will respond." He had previously accused Moscow of recruiting Chinese fighters for its war effort, a claim that Beijing denied.[445][446]
Third-party arms suppliers
China
Samuel Bendett, an adjunct senior fellow at theCenter for a New American Security, stated that China has become a key contributor to Russia's military supply chain.[447]
According to reporting byReuters based on European security officials and documents reviewed by the agency, teams of Chinese drone engineers and technicians visited the Russian state-owned arms manufacturerIEMZ Kupol on multiple occasions from mid‑2024 into 2025 to conduct flight tests, assembly and technical development work on a range of unmanned aerial systems; the documents and invoices cited shipments of Chinese-made one‑way attack and surveillance drones including models supplied by Sichuan AEE and Hunan Haotianyi to Kupol via the sanctioned Russian intermediary TSK Vektor, and described collaborative activities such as adapting Chinese flight‑control computers and engines for the domestically producedGarpiya series, installing anti‑jamming equipment, and conducting test flights at a Russian military range.[447]
Territorial control in Ukraine and nearby areas of Russia as of July 2025
No formaldeclaration of war has been issued in the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War. When Putin announced theRussian invasion of Ukraine, he claimed to commence a "special military operation", side-stepping a formal declaration of war.[448] The statement was, however, regarded by the Ukrainian government as a declaration of war[449] and reported as such by many international news sources.[450][451] While the Ukrainian parliament refers to Russia as a "terrorist state" in regard to its military actions in Ukraine,[452] it has not issued a formal declaration of war on its behalf.
Following Russia's annexation of Crimea, Ukraine blocked theNorth Crimean Canal, which provided 85% of Crimea's drinking and irrigation water.[467]
Interim Ukrainian presidentOleksandr Turchynov accused Russia of "provoking a conflict" by backing the seizure of the Crimean parliament building and other government offices on the Crimean peninsula. He compared Russia's military actions to the 2008Russo-Georgian War, when Russian troops occupied parts of theRepublic of Georgia and the breakaway enclaves ofAbkhazia andSouth Ossetia were established under the control of Russian-backed administrations. He called on Putin to withdraw Russian troops from Crimea and stated that Ukraine will "preserve its territory" and "defend its independence".[468] On 1 March, he warned, "Military intervention would be the beginning of war and the end of any relations between Ukraine and Russia."[469] On 1 March, Acting President Oleksandr Turchynov placed the Armed Forces of Ukraine on full alert and combat readiness.[470]
A U.S. Army convoy inVilseck, Germany duringOperation Atlantic Resolve, NATO's efforts to reassert its military presence in central and eastern Europe that began in April 2014.
On 4 March 2014, the United States pledged $1 billion in aid to Ukraine.[472] Russia's actions increased tensions in nearby countries historically within itssphere of influence, particularly theBaltic andMoldova. All have large Russian-speaking populations, andRussian troops are stationed in the breakaway Moldovan territory ofTransnistria.[473] Some devoted resources to increasing defensive capabilities,[474] and many requested increased support from the U.S. and theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization, which they had joined in recent years.[473][474] The conflict "reinvigorated" NATO, which had been created to face the Soviet Union, but had devoted more resources to "expeditionary missions" in recent years.[475]
In addition to diplomatic support in its conflict with Russia, the U.S. provided Ukraine with US$1.5 billion in military aid during the 2010s.[476] In 2018 theU.S. House of Representatives passed a provision blocking any training ofAzov Battalion of theUkrainian National Guard by American forces. In previous years, between 2014 and 2017, the U.S. House of Representatives passed amendments banning support of Azov, but due to pressure from thePentagon, the amendments were quietly lifted.[477][478][479]
The initial reaction to the escalation of tensions in Crimea caused the Russian and European stock market to tumble.[480]The intervention caused the Swiss franc to climb to a 2-year high against the dollar and 1-year high against the Euro. The Euro and the US dollar both rose, as did the Australian dollar.[481] The Russian stock market declined by more than 10 percent, while the Russianruble hit all-time lows against the US dollar and the Euro.[482][483][484] The Russian central bank hiked interest rates and intervened in the foreign exchange markets to the tune of $12 billion[clarification needed] to try to stabilise its currency.[481] Prices for wheat and grain rose, with Ukraine being a major exporter of both crops.[485]
Later in March 2014, the reaction of the financial markets to the Crimea annexation was surprisingly mellow, with global financial markets rising immediately after the referendum held in Crimea, one explanation being that the sanctions were already priced in following the earlier Russian incursion.[486]Other observers considered that the positive reaction of the global financial markets on Monday 17 March 2014, after the announcement of sanctions against Russia by the EU and the US, revealed that these sanctions were too weak to hurt Russia.[487]In early August 2014, the GermanDAX was down by 6 percent for the year, and 11 percent since June, over concerns Russia, Germany's 13th biggest trade partner, would retaliate against sanctions.[488]
Pro-Russian supporters inDonetsk, 20 December 2014
A poll of the Ukrainian public, excluding Russian-annexedCrimea, was taken by theInternational Republican Institute from 12 to 25 September 2014.[489] 89% of those polled opposed 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine. As broken down by region, 78% of those polled fromEastern Ukraine (includingDnipropetrovsk Oblast) opposed said intervention, along with 89% inSouthern Ukraine, 93% inCentral Ukraine, and 99% inWestern Ukraine.[489] As broken down by native language, 79% of Russian speakers and 95% of Ukrainian speakers opposed the intervention. 80% of those polled said the country should remain aunitary country.[489]
A poll of theCrimean public in Russian-annexed Crimea was taken by the Ukrainian branch of Germany's biggest market research organisation,GfK, on 16–22 January 2015. According to its results: "Eighty-two percent of those polled said they fully supported Crimea's inclusion in Russia, and another 11 percent expressed partial support. Only 4 percent spoke out against it."[490][491][492]
A joint poll conducted by Levada and theKyiv International Institute of Sociology from September to October 2020 found that in the breakaway regions controlled by theDPR/LPR, just over half of the respondents wanted to join Russia (either with or without some autonomous status) while less than one-tenth wanted independence and 12% wanted reintegration into Ukraine. It contrasted with respondents in Kyiv-controlled Donbas, where a vast majority felt the separatist regions should be returned to Ukraine.[493] According to results from Levada in January 2022, roughly 70% of those in the breakaway regions said their territories should become part of the Russian Federation.[494]
An August 2014 survey by theLevada Centre reported that only 13% of those Russians polled would support the Russian government in an open war with Ukraine.[495] Street protests against the war in Ukraine arose in Russia. Notable protests first occurred in March[496][497] and large protests occurred in September when "tens of thousands" protested the war in Ukraine with a peace march in downtown Moscow on Sunday, 21 September 2014, "under heavy police supervision".[498]
In March 2022, a week after the Russian invasion of Ukraine, 98% of Ukrainians—including 82% ofethnic Russians living in Ukraine—said they did not believe that any part of Ukraine was rightfully part of Russia, according toLord Ashcroft's polls which did not include Crimea and the separatist-controlled part of Donbas. 97% of Ukrainians said they had an unfavourable view of Russian president Vladimir Putin, with a further 94% saying they had an unfavourable view of the Russian Armed Forces.[499]
At the end of 2021, 75% of Ukrainians said they had a positive attitude toward ordinary Russians, while in May 2022, 82% of Ukrainians said they had a negative attitude toward ordinary Russians.[500]
ARazumkov Centre poll conducted from 19 to 25 January 2024, found that Russia was the most negatively viewed country in Ukraine, with it being viewed negatively by 95% of Ukrainian respondents. The second, third and fourth most negatively viewed countries were Belarus (87%), Iran (82%) and China (72.5%) respectively. Ukrainian respondents were most positive towards Lithuania (91%), Latvia (90.5%), the UK (90%), Germany (89%), Estonia (89%), Canada (88%) and the US (87%).[501][502]
Gallup opinion polls on whether Ukrainians want a negotiated end to the war as soon as possible, rather than fighting until Ukraine wins, have increased from 22% at the start of the war to 69% in 2025, with it becoming the majority opinion in late 2023.[503][504]
An April 2022 survey by the Levada Centre reported that approximately 74% of the Russians polled supported the "special military operation" in Ukraine, suggesting that Russian public opinion has shifted considerably since 2014.[506] According to some sources, a reason many Russians supported the "special military operation" has to do with thepropaganda and disinformation.[507][508] In addition, it has been suggested that some respondents did not want to answer pollsters' questions for fear of negative consequences.[509][510] At the end of March, a poll conducted in Russia by the Levada Center concluded the following: When asked why they think the military operation is taking place, respondents said it was to protect and defend civilians, ethnic Russians or Russian speakers in Ukraine (43%), to prevent an attack on Russia (25%), to get rid of nationalists and "denazify" Ukraine (21%), and to incorporate Ukraine or the Donbas region into Russia (3%)."[511] According to polls, the Russian president's rating rose from 71% on the eve of the invasion to 82% in March 2023.[512]
The Kremlin's analysis concluded that public support for the war was broad but not deep, and that most Russians would accept anything Putin would call a victory. In September 2023, the head of theVTsIOM state pollster Valery Fyodorov said in an interview that only 10–15% of Russians actively supported the war, and that "most Russians are not demanding the conquest of Kyiv or Odesa."[513] On the accuracy of public opinion polls, Russian-born political activistVladimir Kara-Murza said: "I see Russian pollsters say that the average response-rate to polls in Russia average from five to seven per-cent; some 90% of the people refuse to say in polls, and [for] very good reasons. It is impossible to judge the true state of public opinion in a country that imprisons you for expressing it. ...The Putin propaganda machine tries to pretend that Russian society is a monolith, that all Russians support this war, that all Russians support this regime, and this is a lie, needless to say."[514]
On 28 April 2022, US presidentJoe Biden askedCongress for an additional $33 billion to assist Ukraine, including $20 billion to provide weapons to Ukraine.[518] On 5 May, Ukraine's Prime MinisterDenys Shmyhal announced that Ukraine had received more than $12 billion worth of weapons and financial aid from Western countries since the start of Russia's invasion on 24 February.[519] On 21 May 2022, theUnited States passed legislation providing $40 billion in new military and humanitarian foreign aid to Ukraine, marking a historically large commitment of funds.[520][521] In August 2022, U.S. defense spending to counter the Russian war effort exceeded the first 5 years of war costs inAfghanistan. TheWashington Post reported that new U.S. weapons delivered to the Ukrainian war front suggest a closer combat scenario with more casualties.[522] The United States looks to build "enduring strength in Ukraine" with increased arms shipments and a record-breaking $3 billion military aid package.[522]
Following thesecond inauguration of Donald Trump, theAmerican administration's support to Ukraine decreased, and in March 2025 the United States paused military aid to Ukraine after the2025 Trump–Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting; the aid was later resumed.[524] On 22 May 2025, after months ofpeace negotiations without a bilateral agreement between Russia and Ukraine, the United States together with otherG7 countries united to condemn Russia's continued brutal war against Ukraine. The G7 also declared its continued commitment to supporting Ukraine in defending the country's territorial integrity and right to exist, as well as its freedom, sovereignty and independence, all with the aim of a just and durable peace.[525]
After expending large amounts of heavy weapons and munitions over months, theRussian Federation received combat drones, loitering munitions, and large amounts of artillery fromIran, deliveries of tanks and other armoured vehicles fromBelarus, and reportedly planned to trade for artillery ammunition fromNorth Korea and ballistic missiles from Iran.[527][528][529][530][531]
The U.S. has accusedChina of providing Russia with technology it needs for high-tech weapons, allegations which China has denied. The U.S. sanctioned a Chinese firm for providing satellite imagery to Russian mercenary forces fighting in Ukraine.[532]
In March 2023, Western nations had pressed theUnited Arab Emirates to haltre-exports of goods to Russia which had military uses, amidst allegations that the Gulf country exported 158 drones to Russia in 2022.[533] In May 2023, the U.S. accused South Africa of supplying arms to Russia in a covert naval operation,[534] allegations which have been denied by South African presidentCyril Ramaphosa.[535]
United Nations
United Nations secretary-generalAntónio Guterres and Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy delegations meeting in April 2022
On 25 February 2022, theSecurity Council failed to adopt a draft resolution which would have "deplored, in the strongest terms, the Russian Federation's aggression" on Ukraine. Of the 15 member states on the Security Council, 11 were in support, whilst three abstained from voting. The draft resolution failed due to a Russian veto.[536][537]
Due to the deadlock, the Security Council passed a resolution to convene theGeneral Assembly for theeleventh emergency special session.[538] On 2 March 2022, the General Assembly voted to deplore "in the strongest possible terms" Russia's aggression against Ukraine by a vote of 141 to 5, with 35abstentions.[539] Theresolution also called for the Russian Federation to "immediately cease its use of force against Ukraine" and "immediately, completely and unconditionally withdraw all of its military forces."[539] Only Russia, Belarus,Syria, North Korea andEritrea voted against the resolution.[540]
On 4 March 2022, theUN Human Rights Council adopted a resolution by a vote of 32 to 2, with 13 abstentions, calling for the withdrawal of Russian troops and Russian-backed armed groups from Ukraine and humanitarian access to people in need. The resolution also established a commission to investigate alleged rights violations committed during Russia's military attack on Ukraine.[541]
^There are "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the occupation began.[543] The Ukrainian Government maintains, and theEuropean Court of Human Rights agrees, that Russia controlled Crimea from 27 February 2014,[544] when unmarked Russian commandos seized its political institutions.[67] The Russian Government later made 27 February "Special Operations Forces Day".[76] In 2015, theUkrainian parliament officially designated 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of thetemporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia",[545] citing the date inscribed on the Russianmedal "For the Return of Crimea".[546] On that date,Vladimir Konstantinov, then Chairman of theSupreme Council of Crimea, had said the region would be prepared to join Russia.[547] In 2018, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding".[548] President Putin stated in aRussian film about the annexation that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014.[543][549]
^"Istanbul Document 1999". Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 19 November 1999.Archived from the original on 1 June 2014. Retrieved21 July 2015.
^Cordesman, Anthony H. (28 May 2014)."Russia and the 'Color Revolution'". Center for Strategic and International Studies.Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved4 March 2022.
^Brown, Colin (3 April 2008). "EU allies unite against Bush over Nato membership for Georgia and Ukraine".The Independent. p. 24.
^Evans, Michael (5 April 2008). "President tells summit he wants security and friendship".The Times. p. 46.President Putin, in a bravura performance before the world's media at the end of the Nato summit, warned President Bush and other alliance leaders that their plan to expand eastwards to Ukraine and Georgia 'didn't contribute to trust and predictability in our relations'.
^David R. Marples (2021).The War in Ukraine's Donbas: Origins, Contexts, and the Future. Central European University Press. p. 26.ISBN978-963-386-420-3.The Russian Spring was not exactly a spontaneous uprising. We now know that Kremlin advisors Vladislav Surkov and Sergei Glazyev had directed efforts to coordinate and organize these protests at the beginning of March 2014, turning them into a pro-Russian separatist movement.
^Brands, Hal (2 April 2024).War in Ukraine: Conflict, Strategy, and the Return of a Fractured World. JHU Press. p. 2.ISBN978-1-4214-4984-5.First, what we often call "the Ukraine War" didn't start in February 2022[...] the war between Ukraine and Rus sia began in 2014 with Vladimir Putin's taking of Crimea and his intervention— first through proxies and then with regular forces—in the Donbas.
^abSasse, Gwendolyn (2023).Russia's War Against Ukraine. Wiley & Sons. p. 2004.Russia's war against Ukraine began with the annexation of Crimea on 27 February 2014. On that day, Russian special forces without any uniform insignia appeared in Crimea, quickly taking control of strategic, military and political institutions.
^Käihkö, Ilmari (2023).Slava Ukraini!: Strategy and the Spirit of Ukrainian Resistance 2014–2023. Helsinki University Press. p. 72.If asked when the war began, many Ukrainians believe it was when the unmarked Russian 'little green men' occupied Crimea on February 27, 2014, or February 20, the date given on the official Russian campaign medal 'For the Return of Crimea'.
^abDeBenedictis, Kent (2022).Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 140.During the night of 26–27 February, Russian special forces without insignia departed Sevastopol ... They arrived at the Crimean Rada and Council of Ministers buildings in Simferopol, disarmed the security and took control of the buildings ... Putin later signed a decree designating 27 February as Special Operations Forces Day in Russia.
^Lessons from Russia's Operations in Crimea and Eastern UkraineArchived 17 February 2022 at theWayback Machine, p. 19, published byRAND Corporation in 2017. "Ukraine's government was in transition following the ouster of Yanukovych. As a result, it did not react to the Russian operation when launched. Russia's task was made relatively easy by the confusion and chaos that generally follows an uprising, such as what happened in Kyiv. Moscow capitalized on the tensions and uncertainty in Crimea, as well as on the inexperience of Ukraine's provisional government. Meeting notes of the discussion among Ukrainian leadership reveal a great deal of anxiety, uncertainty, and unwillingness to take action for fear of escalation."
^"Doorstep statement".Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved16 November 2022.NATO Allies have provided training to Ukrainian forces since 2014. In particular, the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada, have conducted significant training in Ukraine since the illegal annexation of Crimea, but also some EU NATO members have been part of these efforts.
^Wynnyckyj, Mychailo (2019).Ukraine's Maidan, Russia's War: A Chronicle and Analysis of the Revolution of Dignity.Columbia University Press. pp. 151–153.
^Holcomb, Franklin (2017).The Kremlin's Irregular Army(PDF). Institute for the Study of War.Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved5 October 2021.
^Loshkariov, Ivan D.; Sushentsov, Andrey A. (2 January 2016). "Radicalization of Russians in Ukraine: from 'accidental' diaspora to rebel movement".Southeast European and Black Sea Studies.16 (1). Informa UK Limited:71–90.doi:10.1080/14683857.2016.1149349.ISSN1468-3857.S2CID147321629.
^Kramer, Andrew."Ukraine Says Russian Forces Lead Major New Offensive in East".CNBC. Archived fromthe original on 28 August 2014.Tanks, artillery and infantry have crossed from Russia into an unbreached part of eastern Ukraine in recent days, attacking Ukrainian forces and causing panic and wholesale retreat not only in this small border town but a wide swath of territory, in what Ukrainian and Western military officials are calling a stealth invasion.
^Tsevtkova, Maria (26 August 2014)."'Men in green' raise suspicions of east Ukrainian villagers".Reuters.Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved6 July 2021.Unidentified, heavily-armed strangers with Russian accents have appeared in an eastern Ukrainian village, arousing residents' suspicions despite Moscow's denials that its troops have deliberately infiltrated the frontier.
^"UN resolution against Ukraine invasion: Full text".Al Jazeera. 2 March 2022.Archived from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved25 March 2022.The General Assembly ... [d]eplores in the strongest terms the aggression by the Russian Federation against Ukraine in violation of Article 2 (4) of the Charter
^Chernova, Anna; Cotovio, Vasco; Thompson, Mark (28 February 2022)."Sanctions slams Russian economy". CNN.Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved4 March 2022.
^Altman, Howard (22 September 2023)."Exclusive Interview With Ukraine's Spy Boss From His D.C. Hotel Room".The War Zone.Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved24 September 2023.TWZ: (...) Were you guys involved with the attack on a Wagner-backed militia in Sudan? CNN reported that Ukrainians were likely involved in the attack on the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) forces with FPV drones. KB: I will only say the following: About two to three months ago I was giving an interview to one of the media, I don't remember which specific one. I answered them back then that anywhere across the world we will be seeking and hunting down Russian military criminals, and sooner or later that time will come whenever they are. That is why we shouldn't be surprised when in any territory, something happens to Russian military criminals. Then speaking about your specific question about Sudan, regretfully I cannot confirm or deny.
^Chesnakov, Aleksei (26 February 2020)."Surkov: I am interested to act against the reality" [Сурков: мне интересно действовать против реальности].Actualcomment.ru (in Russian).Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved27 February 2020.
^abScislowska; Pablo Gorondi; Karel Janicek; Jovana Gec; Corneliu Rusnac (12 March 2014)."Russian aggression unnerves other neighbours".The Chronicle Herald. Associated Press. Retrieved14 March 2014.
^Bershidsky, Leonid (6 February 2015)."One Year Later, Crimeans Prefer Russia".Bloomberg News. Archived fromthe original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved13 March 2022.Eighty-two percent of those polled said they fully supported Crimea's inclusion in Russia, and another 11 percent expressed partial support. Only 4 percent spoke out against it.
^"Sotsial'no-politicheskiye nastroyeniya zhiteley Kryma"Социально-политические настроения жителей Крыма [Socio-Political Moods of Crimean Residents](PDF).GfK Ukraine (in Russian). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 29 October 2015. Retrieved20 December 2018.82% крымчан полностью поддерживают присоединение Крыма к России, 11% – скорее поддерживают, и 4% высказались против этого. Среди тех, кто не поддерживает присоединение Крыма к России, больше половины считают, что присоединение было не полностью законным и его нужно провести в соответствии с международным правом [82% of Crimeans fully support the annexation of Crimea to Russia, 11% rather support it, and 4% were against it. Among those who do not support the annexation of Crimea to Russia, more than half believe that the annexation was not completely legal and should be carried out in accordance with international law]
^"Poll: 82% of Crimeans support annexation".UNIAN. 4 February 2015.A total of 82% of the population of the Crimea fully support Russia's annexation of the peninsula, according to a poll carried out by the GfK Group research institute in Ukraine, Ukrainian online newspaper Ukrainska Pravda reported on Wednesday. Another 11% of respondents said that they rather support the annexation of Crimea, while 4% were against it.
^"Survey: the majority of Ukrainians have a positive attitude towards Georgia".The Odessa Journal. 4 March 2024.Archived from the original on 25 May 2024. Retrieved5 August 2024.Respondents most frequently expressed positive attitudes towards Lithuania (91%), Latvia (90.5%), the United Kingdom (90%), Germany (89%), Estonia (89%), Canada (88%), the United States (87%), France (86%), the Czech Republic (86%), Poland (86%), the Netherlands (83%), Moldova (81%), Japan (74%), Georgia (72%), Israel (65%)...Negative attitudes were most commonly expressed towards Russia (95% of respondents had a negative attitude), Belarus (87%), Iran (82%), China (72.5%), and Hungary (59%).
^"Ukraine v. Russia (re Crimea) (decision)".European Court of Human Rights. January 2021.The Ukrainian Government maintains that the Russian Federation has from 27 February 2014 exercised effective control over the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol ... There was sufficient evidence that during the relevant period the respondent State [Russia] had exercised effective control over Crimea.
^"7683rd meeting of the United Nations Security Council. Thursday, 28 April 2016, 3 p.m. New York".Mr. Prystaiko (Ukraine): ... In that regard, I have to remind the Council that the official medal that was produced by the Russian Federation for the so-called return of Crimea has the dates on it, starting with 20 February, which is the day before that agreement was brought to the attention of the Security Council by the representative of the Russian Federation. Therefore, the Russian Federation started – not just planned, but started – the annexation of Crimea the day before we reached the first agreement and while President Yanukovych was still in power.
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