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ThePolish–Russian War of 1654–1667[b] was a major conflict between theTsardom of Russia and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1655 and 1660, theSwedish invasion was also fought in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and so the period became known as "The Deluge".
The Commonwealth initially suffered defeats, but it regained its ground and won several decisive battles. However, its plundered economy was not able to fund the long conflict. Facing internal crisis and civil war, the Commonwealth was forced to sign a truce. The war ended with significant Russian territorial gains and marked the beginning of the rise of Russia as agreat power inEastern Europe.
In the late recent decade prior to the conflict, tensions brewed significantly between Poles and Cossacks, ranging from discontent amongst the populace towards religious strife emboldened by the Cossacks' bitterness against the Polish hierarchy; These finally broke in 1648 when theKhmelnytsky insurrection ofZaporozhian Cossacks againstthe Commonwealth was initiated byBohdan Khmelnytsky, obtaining his primary endorsement fromTsar Alexis in exchange for his allegiance within the Tsardom. During his preliminary arrangements when he was securing to receiveTatar support, a Polish army dispatched byWładysław IV Vasa advancing in the direction of Ukraine was destroyed within twoseparatebattles in May. Khmelnytsky benefitted upon the victories, whom forwarded them as a signal for a popular revolt. Violence dominated Ukraine against those who were deemed to be Polish collaborators, such as authoritative officials as well as landlords, as well as the Latin and Uniate clergies. Pogroms againstJews were widespread, given their recognition as (arendators), which from the peasants' behalf identified them as oppressive. Heavy crackdowns and reprisals subjected over the revolting population only further intensified the Cossack uprising, withyet another defeat dealt against a recent Polish military formation. Khmelnytsky them subsequently advanced west on Galicia beforebesieging Zamość. However, he did not extend his rapid campaign despite his major advantage over the Poles. Following thedeath of Władysław in May, hishalf-brother became King after he was elected byParliament in November, incentivising Khmelnytsky to immediately withdraw, and returned to Ukraine shortly thereafter. EnteringKiev the very next January, he was widely acclaimed as a liberator over the region. John II Casimir Vasa immediately begun setting reforms in order to resolve political disputes, ethnic tensions and a whirlwind of conflict unleashed over the provinces.
Despite having initially requested an addressing of issues from the Polish authorities, Khmelnytsky started to shift his overall focus after civilian opinion firmly shifted in his favour. He then began conceiving Ukraine as a sovereign Cossack state. Soon afterwards, he initiated plans for a system of government and monetary authorities, founding a local administration under a governing establishment consisting of veteran Cossack officers, and also introduced relations with foreign states. Remaining prepared to formally recognise sovereignty under the Polish crown, he set about negotiations with the Poles. This resulted in the inconclusiveTreaty of Zboriv in the summer of that year – likewise withanother two years afterward – with neither being acceptable to the Poles nor Ukrainians, nor radicalised general populace, the vast consensus of whom then aligned themselves with the Khmelnytsky faction. Although intermittent clashes and engagements resumed between the Poles and revolting partisans, their Tatar allies demonstrated unreliability during pivotal events, thus Khmelnytsky began searching for other allies that would assist them in their resolve for nationhood.[9]
In 1654, thePereiaslav Agreement was signed between Khmelnytsky and the hierarchy of Moscow, producing some greatly disputed results; Russian historians have often highlighted Ukraine's acceptance of the Tsar's superiority, thereby legitimising Russian dominant rule, although Ukrainian historiography stressed Moscow's recognition of their autonomous rights – associating an elected hetmancy, state government along with access to foreign relations – which was essentially equivalent to independence, as mentioned within the agreement. Although theZemsky Sobor of 1651 was poised to accept the Cossacks into theMoscow sphere of influence and to enter the war against Poland–Lithuania; The Tsar waited until 1653, when anew popular assembly eventually authorised the protectorate ofUkraine with Tsardom of Russia. After the Cossacks ratified the agreement at thePereiaslav Council, the Russo-Polish War became inevitable.[10]
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In July 1654 the Russian army of 41,000 (nominally under the Tsar, but in fact commanded by PrincesYakov Cherkassky, Nikita Odoevsky andIvan Khovansky) captured the border forts ofBely andDorogobuzh and laid siege toSmolensk.
The Russian position at Smolensk was endangered as long asGreat Lithuanian Hetman, PrinceJanusz Radziwiłł, with a 10,000 man garrison, heldOrsha, slightly to the west.[11] Cherkassky took Orsha; forces under his command, led byKniaz (Prince, or Duke)Yuri Baryatinsky, forced Radziwill to retreat in theBattle of Shklov (also known as theBattle of Szkłów,Battle of Shkloŭ, orBattle of Shklow, which took place during asolar eclipse, and for which both sides claimed victory), fought nearShklov on 12 August.[11] Radziwill was again defeated twelve days later at theBattle of Shepeleviche. After a three-month siege, Smolensk – the main object of theprevious Russo-Polish War – fell to the Russians on 23 September.
In the meantime, PrinceAleksey Trubetskoy led the southern flank of the Russian army fromBryansk to Ukraine. The territory between theDnieper andBerezina was overrun quickly, with Trubetskoy takingMstislavl andRoslavl and his Ukrainian allies capturingHomel. On the northern flank, V.B. Sheremetev set out fromPskov and seized the Lithuanian cities ofNevel (1 July),Polotsk (17 July), andVitebsk (17 November).
Thereupon the Tsar's troops in December swarmed overPolish Livonia and firmly established themselves inLudza andRezekne. Simultaneously, the combined forces of Khmelnitsky and the RussianBoyarButurlin struck againstVolynia. Despite many disagreements between the commanders, they took hold ofOstroh andRivne by the end of the year.
In the winter and spring of 1655, (Prince) Radziwill launched a counter-offensive inBelarus, recapturingOrsha andbesieging Mogilyov. This siege continued for three months with no conclusion. In January, Sheremetev and Khmelnitsky were defeated at theBattle of Okhmativ, while a second Polish army (allied with theTatars) crushed a Russian-Ukrainian contingent at Zhashkov.
Alarmed by these reverses, the Tsar hastened from Moscow and at his instigation a massive offensive was launched. The Lithuanian forces offered little effective resistance and surrenderedMinsk to the Cossacks and Cherkassky on 3 July.Vilnius, the capital of theGreat Duchy of Lithuania, was taken by the Russians on 31 July. This success was followed up by the conquest ofKaunas andHrodno in August.
Elsewhere, PrinceVolkonsky sailed fromKiev up the Dnieper and thePripyat, routing the Lithuanians and capturingPinsk on his way. Trubetskoy's unit overranSlonim andKletsk, while Sheremetev managed little beyond seizingVelizh on 17 June. A Lithuanian garrison still resisted the Cossacks' siege in Stary Bykhov, when Khmelnitsky and Buturlin were already active inGalicia. They attacked the Polish city ofLwów in September and enteredLublin afterPawel Jan Sapieha's defeat nearBrest.
The Russians advance into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth led to the kingdom of Swedeninvading Poland in 1655 under KingCharles X.
Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin then opened negotiations with the Poles and signed an armistice,Truce of Vilna, on 2 November. After that, Russian forces marched on Swedish Livonia and besiegedRiga in theRusso-Swedish War (1656–1658), a theater of theSecond Northern War. Khmelnytsky was not against this temporary truce and supported the Tsar though he warned him of Polish furtiveness.[12]Ivan Vyhovsky, the newly elected hetman in 1657 upon the death of Khmelnytsky,allied himself with the Poles in September 1658, creating theGrand Duchy of Ruthenia. However, the Cossacks were also beset with the start of acivil war with this Commonwealth treaty and a newTreaty of Pereyaslav with Russia in 1659.
The Tsar concluded with Sweden the advantageousTreaty of Valiersar, which allowed him to resume hostilities against the Poles in October, capturingWincenty Gosiewski at theBattle of Werki. In the north, Sapieha's attempt to blockade Vilnius was checked by PrinceYury Dolgorukov [ru] on 11 October. Russians under the command of Romodanovsky invaded Ukraine in the south, the Cossacks who had previouslybesieged Kiev were defeated and Vyhovsky again swore the oath to the Russian tsar. In Belarus, the Ukrainian Cossacks staged a mutiny, but as a result of the decisivesiege at Varva were defeated. However, in 1659, with the support of the Tatars, he was able to inflict aheavy defeat on the Russians.
The threat to the Russians during their conquests in Ukraine was relieved after Vyhovsky lost his alliance withCrimean Khanate due to a campaign against Crimea byKosh OtamanIvan Sirko, who later attacked Chyhyryn as well.
An uprising started in theSiever Ukraine where Vyhovsky stationed a number of Polish garrisons, during which Ukrainian noblemanYuri Nemyrych, who was considered the original author of the Hadyach Treaty, was killed. Together with theUman colonelMykhailo Khanenko Sirko led a full scale uprising throughout Ukraine. The mutinied Cossacks demanded that Vyhovsky to surrender the hetman's attributes and return power to Khmelnitsky's sonYurii as the legitimate hetman of Ukraine. Both forces faced off near the village of Hermanivka. There the rest of Cossacks deserted Vyhovsky and rallied under Yuri Khmelnytsky, while Vyhovsky was left with the Polish troops and other mercenaries. A council was gathered with participation of both sides where the union with Poland–Lithuania was proclaimed invalid. Due to the rising arguments and threats Vyhovsky left the meeting. The council elected Khmelnytsky as the new hetman and an official request to surrender power was sent to Vyhovsky who had no other choice as to comply.
Russian forces, stunned at Konotop tried to renegotiate a peace treaty on any terms. However, the change of powers within theCossack Hetmanate reflected the influence of the Russian foreign policy in Ukraine and reassuredvoivode Trubetskoi. Trubetskoi invited Khmelnytsky to renegotiate.
Advised by starshyna not to rush it Yuri Khmelnytsky, sent outPetro Doroshenko as his envoy. Trubetskoi, however, insisted on the presence of the hetman to sign the official treaty atPereyaslav. Arriving there Khmelnytsky discovered that he was ambushed and had to comply to the terms imposed on the Cossacks by Muscovites (seePereyaslav Articles).
The tide turned in favor of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1660. KingJohn II Casimir, having concluded theSecond Northern War against Sweden with theTreaty of Oliva, was now able to concentrate all his forces on the Eastern front.[7]: 186 Sapieha andStefan Czarniecki defeated Khovansky at theBattle of Polonka on 27 June.[7]: 186 Then,Potocki andLubomirski attacked V.B. Sheremetev in theBattle of Cudnów and forced him to capitulate on 2 November, after persuadingYurii Khmelnytsky to withdraw on 17 October.[7]: 186 These reverses forced the Tsar to accept theTreaty of Kardis, by way of averting a new war against Sweden.
In July 1662, the Right-Bank forces ofYuri Khmelnytsky, supported by Polish and Crimean Tatar troops (about 20 000 men ), were defeated in the largebattle of Kaniv by the Russian forces ofGrigory Romodanovsky and the Left-Bank Cossacks ofYakym Somko (about 28 000 men).[13]
Towards the end of 1663, the Polish-Lithuanian King crossed the Dnieper and invadedLeft-bank Ukraine. Most towns in his path surrendered without resistance, but hissiege of Hlukhiv in January was a costly failure, and he suffered a further setback atNovgorod-Seversky, and so his Ukrainian campaign proved a fiasco. The forces of Lithuania in the summer managed to defeat the invading corps of Khovansky nearVitebsk, but overall the 1664 campaigns were a disappointment.[7]: 187
Peace negotiations dragged on from 1664 until January 1667, whencivil war forced the Poles and Lithuanians to conclude theTreaty of Andrusovo, whereby the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceded to Russia the fortress of Smolensk and Ukraine on the left bank of theDnieper River (includingKiev), while the Commonwealth retained the right-bank Ukraine.[7]: 186
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In addition to the territorial changes from the war, this conflict sparked major changes in the Russian military. While the Russian army was still a "semi-standing, mobilized seasonally", this conflict moved it along the path toward a standing army, laying the groundwork for Russian military successes underPeter the Great andCatherine the Great.[14]
This war, occurring during a time known as theDeluge, was a major negative outcome for the Polish nation. While Poland had been able to regain some of its lost territories, in the long-term it greatly weakened and left Poland increasingly vulnerable to Russian incursions. The country found itself unable to prevent the futurePartitions of Poland, in which Russia took a major part.[15]
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| Interwar Lithuania (1918–1940) |
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| Piast Poland |
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| Jagiellon Poland |
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| World War II in Poland |
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