| The Russian Partition | |
|---|---|
| The Commonwealth | |
 ThePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772 | |
| Elimination | |
 The three partitions of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Russian Partition (red), theAustrian Partition (green), and thePrussian Partition (blue) | |
TheRussian Partition (Polish:zabór rosyjski) constituted the former territories of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that were annexed by theRussian Empire in the course of late-18th-centuryPartitions of Poland.[1] The Russian acquisition encompassed the largest share of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's population, living on 463,200 km2 (178,800 sq mi) of land constituting the eastern and central territory of the former Commonwealth. The three partitions, which took place in 1772, 1793 and 1795, resulted in the complete loss ofPoland's andLithuania's sovereignty, with their territories split between Russia,Prussia andAustria. The majority of Lithuania's former territory was annexed by the Russian Empire, except forUžnemunė [lt] (a geographical area on the left bank of the RiverNeman) which was annexed by Prussia.[2]
TheNapoleonic Wars saw significant parts ofPrussia's andAustria's partitions reconstituted as theDuchy of Warsaw (aFrenchclient state in apersonal union underSaxony), most of which was then reconstituted as theKingdom of Poland within the Russian Empire in 1815.
To both Russians and Poles, the termRussian Poland was not acceptable. To the Russians after partition, Poland ceased to exist, and their newly acquired territories were considered thelong lost parts ofMother Russia.[3] To Poles, Poland was simply Polish, never Russian.[3] While the Russians used varying administrative names for their new territories (see below), another popular term, used in Poland and adopted by most other historiographies, was theRussian Partition.[1]
Even before the partitions from the late 18th century, theRussian Empire had already acquired some territories of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (areal union ofKingdom of Poland with theGrand Duchy of Lithuania). The first Russian partition took place in the late 17th century when the forcedTreaty of Andrusovo signed in 1667 granted Russia the Commonwealth's territory in theEastern Ukraine.[3] Under theThird Partition of Poland Russia acquiredCourland, all Lithuanian territory east of theNieman River, and the remaining parts ofVolhynian Ukraine.
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Major historical events of the Russian Partition included theWarsaw Uprising (1794) soon afterKościuszko's victory atRacławice. It ended up in themassacre of Praga district ofWarsaw, in which the Russian imperial army killed up to 20,000 civilians in reprisal or revenge, regardless of gender and age.[4] "The whole of Praga was strewn with dead bodies, blood was flowing in streams" wroteSuvorov himself.[5]
In 1807, the victoriousNapoleon formed theDuchy of Warsaw after hisWar of the Fourth Coalition against Prussia and Russia. The new Duchy was held in personal union by KingFrederick Augustus I ofSaxony. However, the Duchy was dissolved after just a few years following the 1815Congress of Vienna, and all its territory returned to its previous rulers. The TsaristKingdom of Poland was established in the territory returned to Russia with the Tsar taking the title ofKing of Poland. The protectorate was gradually integrated into Russia over the course of the 19th century. Notwithstanding, the relentless Russian exploitation activities led to the1830–1831November Uprising which took place in the heartland of partitioned Poland,forming a government. Its subsequent defeat resulted in a new wave of Tsarist mass repressions and punitive actions. In 1863–1864 another insurrection, theJanuary Uprising, broke out. This time, theCarmelite friars who helped the insurgents were sent ondeath marches to Siberia chained by their necks together.[6] TheJanuary Uprising lead to the Kingdom's autonomy being drastically reduced, and its renaming asVistula Land. There is debate as to whether theKingdom of Poland, as a state, was formally replaced by theVistula Land. Towns were stripped of their charters in reprisal and turned into villages. The Russian Partition of Poland was made an official province of the Russian Empire in 1867.[7][8]
In the early 20th century, a major part of the Russian Revolution of 1905 was theRevolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907). The return to Poland's independence was a result of theFirst World War on the Polish lands (1914–1918), the overthrow of the Tsarist regime, and the defeat of theCentral Powers in 1918.[9]
TheRussification policies were harsh, and there were many repressions, particularly in the aftermath of theNovember Uprising (1830–1831) and later, theJanuary Uprising of 1863–1864.[10] Many Poles wereexiled to Siberia,[10] some 80,000 of them in 1864 in the single largest deportation action commenced by the empire.[11]Polish language was discriminated against, and it lost its official status. "Books were burned; churches destroyed; priests murdered;" wroteNorman Davies.[12] There was no education in the Polish language, and publications in Polish were few.[10] The only elementary schools were constantly underfinanced.[10] The city of Warsaw under the Tsarist rule resembled a military base with exclusively Russian stores and clubs as well as 12 Russian garrisons in the city,[13] equipped with newly built horse stables, and amenities like laundry shacks, and cabbage pickleries.[14]
Polish stores – where Russian was not being spoken – were routinely denied a license. Polish names were removed even from botanical signs. Hunger and poverty were rampant with record number of women forced to work at the Russian military brothels, of which there were some 185 in total, including 16 official ones (1884).[14] In cheap army brothels sex could be bought for as little as 30 kopecks (less than 1/3 of a rouble); one woman for every 30 Russians stationed at a garrison, with beatings and instances of women getting killed by them in drunken rages.[14]Sex slaves were obliged to drink with the clients as a general rule. Officers had their own brothels under the chief of police (1888–1895), known sex connoisseurNikolai Kleigels (Russian:Николай Клейгельс) who was selling young Polish girls dressed in exotic costumes for 10 roubles a visit.[14] The girls were categorized by the Russian authorities as either inexpensive, medium-priced, or exclusive based on age, beauty and demeanour. In all cities with the Russian garrisons, army-licensed brothels were required to provide so-called "patriotic duty" to their regiments by giving one free visit per soldier, at least once a week. The battalions of 186 men each, divided into 9 companies, were taken to brothels under the command of an infantry sergeant. Each girl was required to service 20-21 members of a battalion, after which she would be allowed to take other men to make money in order to buy food.[15] Jewish girls were especially vulnerable due to the totality of the tsarist officialantisemitism including mass expulsions ofLitvaks commanded byAlexander III of Russia which led to desperation and hunger.[16]
There was nonetheless growth in the national consciousness, and theRevolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907) resulted in the general improvement of the situation soon before the dissolution of the Empire.[10] Some major political parties of theSecond Polish Republic developed around that time in the Russian partition (ex.Polish Socialist Party).[10] TheNew York Times noted some aspects of society that were still "risky" or "distressing" in 1907. Police units sometimes feared being stabbed or shot, while civilians sometimes feared being imprisoned while merely asking a policeman for directions.[17] In 1909, agendarme chief was severely wounded in an ambush in Warsaw.[18] In 1910, a bomb exploded at theGrodzisk station, killing or wounding several gendarmes.[19]
Ukrainians were officially considered "part of theRussian people" and at the time mostly referred to asLittle Russians.[20] Since they were seen as Russians they were not discriminated against at the individual level and (if they could speakRussian) any career was open to them.[20] Nonetheless, in 1804Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools.[21] A following 1863 ban on Ukrainian books led toAlexander II's secretEms Ukaz, which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned the printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores.[22] Ukrainians living inAustria-Hungary were given more rights than Ukrainians living in theRussian Empire.[23]
The territories of the Russian Partition saw very moderate economic growth over time. No business activity could take place without bribing the Tsarist officials first.[14] Much of the output of the Polish Partition was exported to Russia proper, especially after the border between Congress Poland and Russia was abolished in 1851.[10] Theemancipation reform of 1861 was a major step towardsindustrialization andurbanization.[10] Particularly, the last three or four decades before World War I saw significant economic development and urbanization.[10] However, in many areas of the economy, development stalled.[10]
The Russian Empire divided the former territories of the Commonwealth it obtained (Rech Pospolitaya in Russian) by creating or enlarging the followingguberniyas (Tsarist governorates, or provinces).[24]
After theCongress of Vienna in 1815, the Russian Empire created a separate entity calledCongress Poland out of some of the above governorates. Seeadministrative division of Congress Poland for details. Territories in the Russian partition which were not incorporated into Congress Poland were officially known as theWestern Krai, and in Poland as thetaken lands (Polish:ziemie zabrane).
The Western Krai comprised the following lands of the Commonwealth:
It consisted of 9guberniyas: sixBelarusian andLithuanian ones that constituted theNorthwestern Krai (Vilna Governorate,Kovno Governorate,Grodno Governorate,Minsk Governorate,Mogilev Governorate andVitebsk Governorate) and threeUkrainian ones that constituted theSouthwestern Krai (Volhynia Governorate,Podolia Governorate andKiev Governorate).
In the first partition, Russia gained 92,000 km2 and 1.3 million people. In the second, 250,000 km2 and 1 million people. In the third, 120,000 km2 and 1.2 million people. Overall, Russia had gained about 62 percent of the former Commonwealth territory (462,000 km2) and about 45 percent of the population (3.5 million people).[25] The Russian partition was thus the largest and most populous of the three partitions (the other two beingthe Austrian Partition andthe Prussian Partition).[25]
For changes in the administrative division of the Russian partition in the 19th century, seeadministrative division of Congress Poland.
DuringWorld War I (1914–1918), many of the territories were occupied by theCentral Powers (primarily,German Empire) and came to be administered by theOber Ost.
Source: J. Wiśniewski, "Dzieje osadnictwa w powiecie grajewskim do połowy XVI wieku",Studia i materiały do dziejów powiatu grajewskiego, edited by M. Gnatowski and H. Majecki, volume I and II, Warsaw 1975.
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