Country spanning Europe and Asia
Russian Federation
Anthem: Государственный гимн Российской Федерации Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii State Anthem of the Russian Federation "
Recognised territory
Claimed but internationally unrecognised
[ a] Show globe Show region with labels Show map of Europe Capitaland largest city
Moscow 55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E / 55.75583°N 37.61722°E /55.75583; 37.61722 Official and national language Russian [ 3] Recognised regional languages 35regional official languages [ 4] Ethnic groups Demonym Russian Government Federalsemi-presidential republic [ 6] authoritarian [ 7] [ 8] [ 9] [ 10] Vladimir Putin Mikhail Mishustin Legislature Federal Assembly Federation Council State Duma Formation 882 1157 1282 16 January 1547 2 November 1721 15 March 1917 30 December 1922 12 June 1990 12 December 1991 12 December 1993 8 December 1999 Area • Total
17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)[ 12] • Water (%)
13[ 11] Population • 2025 estimate
[ 13] (including Crimea)[ 14] (excluding Crimea) 9th )• Density
8.4/km2 (21.8/sq mi) (187th ) GDP (PPP ) 2025 estimate • Total
[ 15] 4th )• Per capita
[ 15] 44th )GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate • Total
[ 15] 9th )• Per capita
[ 15] 64th )Gini (2020) [ 16] medium inequality HDI (2023) [ 17] very high 64th )Currency Russian ruble (₽ ) (RUB )Time zone UTC +2 to +12 Calling code +7 ISO 3166 code RU Internet TLD
Russia ,[ b] Russian Federation ,[ c] Eastern Europe andNorth Asia . It is thelargest country in the world , spanningeleven time zones and sharingland borders with fourteen countries .[ d] most populous country in Europe and theninth-most populous in the world . It is ahighly urbanised country , with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants.Moscow , themost populous metropolitan area in Europe , is the capital andlargest city of Russia ;Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city andcultural centre .
Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to theLower Paleolithic . TheEast Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. The first East Slavic state,Kievan Rus' , arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adoptedOrthodox Christianity from theByzantine Empire . Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated; theGrand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of theTsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts ofRussian explorers , developing into theRussian Empire , which remains thethird-largest empire in history . However, with theRussian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rulewas abolished and eventually replaced by theRussian SFSR —the world's first constitutionallysocialist state . Following theRussian Civil War , the Russian SFSR established theSoviet Union with three otherSoviet republics , within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwentrapid industrialisation in the 1930s , amidst thedeaths of millions underJoseph Stalin 's rule, and later played a decisive role for theAllies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on theEastern Front . With the onset of theCold War , it competed with theUnited States forideological dominance andinternational influence . The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of themost significant Russian technological achievements , including thefirst human-made satellite and thefirst human expedition into outer space .
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from thedissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. Following the1993 Russian constitutional crisis , the Soviet system of government was abolished anda new constitution was adopted, which established afederal semi-presidential system . Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated byVladimir Putin ,under whom the country has experienceddemocratic backsliding and become anauthoritarian dictatorship .Russia has been militarily involved in a number ofconflicts in former Soviet states and other countries , includingits war with Georgia in 2008 andits war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognisedannexations of Ukrainian territory, includingCrimea in 2014 andfour other regions in 2022 , duringan ongoing invasion .
Russia is generally considered agreat power and is aregional power , possessing thelargest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having thethird-highest military expenditure in the world.Its advanced economy ranks among thelargest in the world , relying onits vast mineral and energy resources , mainlyoil andnatural gas production . Russiaranks very low in international measurements ofdemocracy ,human rights andfreedom of the press , and alsohas high levels of perceived corruption . It is apermanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member state of theSCO and several other intergovernmental organisations. Russia is home to32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites .
Etymology According to theOxford English Dictionary Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed fromMedieval Latin :Russia , used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived fromRussi -ia [ 19] [ 20]
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjectiveрусский russkiy Russians . The adjectiveроссийский rossiiskiy Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined nounроссиянин rossiianyn [ 21] [ 22]
The oldestendonyms used wereRus' (Русь Русская земля Russkaya zemlya [ 23] Primary Chronicle Rus' is derived from theRus' people , who were aSwedish tribe, and from where the three original members of theRurikid dynasty came from.[ 24] Finnish word for Swedes,ruotsi [ 25] East Slavic state is usually referred to asKievan Rus' [ 26] Rus' wasRuthenia [ 27]
In Russian, the current name of the country,Россия Rossiya Byzantine Greek nameΡωσία Rosía [ 28] Росия Rosiya [ 29] Rossiya Rus' during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.[ 30] Rus' , the "Russian land" (Russkaya zemlya Moskovskoye gosudarstvo [ 31] [ 21]
In 1721,Peter the Great proclaimed theRussian Empire (Rossiyskaya imperiya [ 31] Rossiya was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.[ 32] Rossiya is distinguished from the ethnonymrusskiy , as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.[ 32] Russian Revolution and the proclamation of theRussian SFSR in 1918, the "Russian" in the title of the state wasRossiyskaya , rather thanRusskaya , as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.[ 33] Rus' is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.[ 26]
History
Early history The first human settlement on Russia dates back to theOldowan period in the earlyLower Paleolithic . About 2 million years ago, representatives ofHomo erectus Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[ 34] Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in theNorth Caucasus .[ 35] Radiocarbon dated specimens fromDenisova Cave in theAltai Mountains estimate the oldestDenisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[ 36] Denny archaic human hybrid that was halfNeanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[ 37] Mezmaiskaya cave .[ 38]
The first trace of anearly modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, inWestern Siberia .[ 39] anatomically modern humans , from at least 40,000 years ago, was found atKostyonki–Borshchyovo ,[ 40] Sungir , dating back to 34,600 years ago—both inwestern Russia .[ 41] Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, inMamontovaya Kurya .[ 42] Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar toMal'ta–Buret' culture andAfontova Gora were an important genetic contributor toAncient Native Americans andEastern Hunter-Gatherers .[ 43]
Bronze Age spread ofYamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[ 44] Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia TheKurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia andUkraine as theurheimat of theProto-Indo-Europeans .[ 45] Indo-European migrations from thePontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spreadYamnaya ancestry andIndo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[ 46] [ 47] Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in theChalcolithic .[ 48] Ipatovo ,[ 48] Sintashta ,[ 49] Arkaim ,[ 50] Pazyryk ,[ 51] horses in warfare .[ 49] Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration fromSiberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[ 52]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, theGothic kingdom ofOium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun byHuns . Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, theBosporan Kingdom , which was a Hellenisticpolity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[ 53] Eurasian Avars .[ 54] Khazars , who were ofTurkic origin , ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[ 55] Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by theCumans and theKipchaks .[ 56]
The ancestors ofRussians are among theSlavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europec. 1500 years ago.[ 57] Moscow andSaint-Petersburg ) in two waves: one moving fromKiev towards present-daySuzdal andMurom and another fromPolotsk towardsNovgorod andRostov .[ 58] Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[ 59] [ 60]
Kievan Rus' after theCouncil of Liubech in 1097The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival ofVarangians , theVikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Balticto the Black andCaspian Seas.[ 59] [ 61] Primary Chronicle Rus' people , namedRurik , was elected ruler ofNovgorod in 862. In 882, his successorOleg ventured south and conqueredKiev , which had been previously paying tribute to theKhazars .[ 59] [ 61] Igor and Igor's sonSviatoslav subsequently subdued all localEast Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[ 62] Bulgaria ,Byzantium andPersia .[ 63] [ 64]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns ofVladimir the Great (980–1015) and his sonYaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute theGolden Age of Kiev, which sawthe acceptance of Orthodox Christianity fromByzantium , and the creation of the first East Slavic writtenlegal code , theRusskaya Pravda [ 59] feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of theRurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit ofVladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, theNovgorod Republic in the north, andGalicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[ 59] [ 65] Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and madeVladimir his base,[ 65] [ 59]
Led by PrinceAlexander Nevsky , Novgorodians repelled the invadingSwedes in theBattle of the Neva in 1240,[ 66] Germanic crusaders in theBattle on the Ice in 1242.[ 67]
Kievan Rus' finally fell to theMongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in thesacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[ 59] Tatars , formed the state of theGolden Horde , which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[ 68] [ 59] Lithuania andPoland , while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[ 59]
Grand Principality of Moscow Sergius of Radonezh blessingDmitry Donskoy inTrinity Sergius Lavra , before theBattle of Kulikovo , depicted in a painting byErnst Lissner The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of theGrand Principality of Moscow , initially a part ofVladimir-Suzdal .[ 59] : 11–20 Mongol -Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[ 69] [ 59] [ 70] Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[ 71] Novgorod Republic , prospered as the chieffur trade centre and the easternmost port of theHanseatic League .[ 72]
Led by PrinceDmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicteda milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in theBattle of Kulikovo in 1380.[ 59] Tver andNovgorod .[ 59]
Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of theGolden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;[ 59] sovereign of all Russia .[ 73] fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscowclaimed succession to the legacy of theEastern Roman Empire . Ivan III marriedSophia Palaiologina , the niece of the lastByzantine emperor Constantine XI , and made the Byzantinedouble-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[ 59] Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independentRussian states in the early 16th century.[ 74]
Tsardom of Russia Ivan IV was theGrand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, thenTsar of Russia until his death in 1584.In development of theThird Rome ideas, the grand princeIvan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the firsttsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsarpromulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550 ), established the first Russian feudal representative body (theZemsky Sobor ), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[ 59] Kazan andAstrakhan along theVolga ,[ 75] Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of theUral Mountains .[ 76] Livonian War against the coalition of theKingdom of Poland and theGrand Duchy of Lithuania (later the unitedPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), theKingdom of Sweden , andDenmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[ 77] Crimean Tatars werethoroughly defeated in the crucialBattle of Molodi .[ 78]
Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published byHessel Gerritsz in 1614 The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancientRurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrousfamine of 1601–1603 , led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during theTime of Troubles in the early 17th century.[ 79] Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[ 80] Kuzma Minin and princeDmitry Pozharsky .[ 81] Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[ 82]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of theCossacks .[ 83] Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar,Alexis , whose acceptance of this offer led to anotherRusso-Polish War . Ultimately, Ukraine was split along theDnieper , leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine andKiev ) under Russian rule.[ 84] Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along theSiberian River Routes , and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on theChukchi Peninsula , along theAmur River , and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[ 83] Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through theBering Strait .[ 85]
Imperial Russia UnderPeter the Great , Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in theGreat Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter foundedSaint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule,sweeping reforms were made , which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[ 59] Catherine I (1725–1727), followed byPeter II (1727–1730), andAnna . The reign of Peter I's daughterElizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in theSeven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overranEast Prussia , reaching Berlin.[ 86] Kingdom of Prussia by pro-PrussianPeter III of Russia .[ 87]
Expansion andterritorial evolution of Russia from thecoronation ofIvan IV to the death ofPeter I Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over theRussian Age of Enlightenment . She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth andannexed most of its territories into Russia , making it the most populous country in Europe.[ 88] Russo-Turkish Wars against theOttoman Empire , Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving theCrimean Khanate , andannexing Crimea .[ 89] Qajar Iran through theRusso-Persian Wars , by the first half of the 19th century, Russia alsoconquered the Caucasus .[ 90] Paul , wasunstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues .[ 91] Alexander I 's (1801–1825)wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[ 92] Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[ 93] reach and colonise Alaska .[ 94] first Russian circumnavigation was made.[ 95] a Russian expedition discovered the continent ofAntarctica .[ 96]
Napoleon 's retreat from MoscowAlbrecht Adam (1851)During theNapoleonic Wars , Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. TheFrench invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly coldRussian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-EuropeanGrande Armée faced utter destruction. Led byMikhail Kutuzov andMichael Andreas Barclay de Tolly , theImperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in theWar of the Sixth Coalition , ultimately entering Paris.[ 97] Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at theCongress of Vienna , which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[ 98]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortiveDecembrist revolt of 1825.[ 99] Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in theCrimean War .[ 100]
Great liberal reforms and capitalism TheBattle of Shipka Pass for the control of the vitalShipka Pass during the1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War Nicholas's successorAlexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including theemancipation reform of 1861 .[ 101] Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War .[ 102] Britain colluded overAfghanistan and its neighbouring territories inCentral and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as theGreat Game .[ 103]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II wasassassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[ 104] Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[ 105]
Constitutional monarchy and World War Under last Russian emperor,Nicholas II (1894–1917), theRevolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of theRusso-Japanese War .[ 106] Russian Constitution of 1906 ), including grantingfreedoms of speech andassembly , the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, theState Duma .[ 107]
Revolution and civil war EmperorNicholas II of Russia and theRomanovs wereexecuted by the Bolsheviks in 1918. In 1914,Russia entered World War I in response toAustria-Hungary 's declaration of war on Russia's allySerbia ,[ 108] Triple Entente allies.[ 109] Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed theAustro-Hungarian Army .[ 110] high casualties , and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for theRussian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[ 59] Nicholas II wasforced to abdicate ; he and his family were imprisoned andlater executed during theRussian Civil War .[ 111] Provisional Government ,[ 112] Russian Republic . On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, theRussian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by theAll-Russian Central Executive Committee .[ 59]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, thePetrograd Soviet , wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, calledsoviets October Revolution , led byBolshevik leaderVladimir Lenin , overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's firstsocialist state .[ 59] Russian Civil War broke out between theanti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with itsRed Army .[ 113] Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with theCentral Powers ofWorld War I , Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[ 114]
Vladimir Lenin speaks in Moscow, 1920, withLeon Trotsky leaning against the podiumTheAllied powers launched an unsuccessfulmilitary intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[ 115] Red Terror andWhite Terror .[ 116] [ 117] White émigrés ,[ 118] Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[ 119]
Soviet Union Location of theRussian SFSR (red) within theSoviet Union in 1936
Command economy and Soviet society On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aidesformed theSoviet Union , by joining theRussian SFSR into a single state with theByelorussian ,Transcaucasian , andUkrainian republics.[ 120] 15 republics , the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[ 121]
FollowingLenin's death in 1924, atroika was designated to take charge. EventuallyJoseph Stalin , theGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party , managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.[ 122] Leon Trotsky , the main proponent ofworld revolution , was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[ 123] Socialism in One Country became the official line.[ 124] Great Purge .[ 125]
Stalinism and modernisation Congratulations sent byJoseph Stalin on the opening of theStalingrad Tractor Plant Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched acommand economy ,industrialisation of the largely rural country , andcollectivisation ofits agriculture . During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent topenal labour camps , including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule,[ 126] deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[ 127] [ 128] Soviet famine of 1932–1933 , which killed 5.7[ 129] [ 130] [ 131]
World War II and United Nations Two teenage girls assemblePPD-40 submachine guns during theSiege of Leningrad in 1942 TheBattle of Stalingrad , the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against theGerman army . The Soviet Union enteredWorld War II on 17 September 1939 with itsinvasion of Poland ,[ 132] Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact withNazi Germany .[ 133] invaded Finland ,[ 134] occupied and annexed the Baltic states ,[ 135] parts of Romania .[ 136] : 91–95 invaded the Soviet Union ,[ 137] Eastern Front , the largest theater of World War II.[ 138] : 7
Eventually, some 5 millionRed Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[ 139] : 272 starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million SovietPOWs , and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan " sought to fulfilGeneralplan Ost .[ 140] : 175–186 Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in theBattle of Moscow .[ 141] Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[ 142] Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[ 143] Siege of Leningrad , in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[ 144] captured Berlin in May 1945.[ 145] invaded Manchuria andousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[ 146]
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as theGreat Patriotic War .[ 147] Four Policemen , which was the foundation of theUnited Nations Security Council .[ 148] : 27 Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million ,[ 149] World War II casualties .[ 150] : 295 Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused theSoviet famine of 1946–1947 .[ 151] [ 152]
Superpower and Cold War The "Big Three " at theYalta Conference in February 1945,Winston Churchill ,Franklin D. Roosevelt andJoseph Stalin After World War II, according to thePotsdam Conference , theRed Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, includingEast Germany and the eastern regions ofAustria .[ 153] Eastern Bloc satellite states.[ 154] nuclear power ,[ 155] Warsaw Pact alliance,[ 156] Cold War , with the rivalling United States andNATO .[ 157]
Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development AfterStalin's death in 1953 and a short period ofcollective rule , the new leaderNikita Khrushchev denouncedStalin and launched the policy ofde-Stalinization , releasing many political prisoners from theGulag labour camps.[ 158] Khrushchev Thaw .[ 159] Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Sovietmissiles in Cuba .[ 160]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificialsatellite ,Sputnik 1 Space Age .[ 161] cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard theVostok 1 12 April 1961 .[ 162]
Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period ofcollective rule ensued, untilLeonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as theEra of Stagnation . The 1965Kosygin reform aimed for partialdecentralisation of theSoviet economy .[ 163] communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting theSoviet–Afghan War .[ 164] Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan , due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[ 165]
Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev and US PresidentRonald Reagan inRed Square during theMoscow Summit , 31 May 1988 From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev , who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies ofglasnost perestroika period of economic stagnation and todemocratise the government .[ 166] [ 167] [ 168]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as theBaltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[ 169] referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into arenewed federation .[ 170] Boris Yeltsin became the first directly electedPresident in Russian history when he waselected President of the Russian SFSR.[ 171] a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[ 172] dissolution of the Soviet Union , along with contemporary Russia, fourteen otherpost-Soviet states emerged.[ 173]
Independent Russian Federation
Transition to a market economy and political crises Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on hisfirst inauguration , withBoris Yeltsin looking over, 2000The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms includingprivatisation andmarket and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy ".[ 174] Russian oligarchs .[ 175] capital flight .[ 176] birth rate plummeted while thedeath rate skyrocketed,[ 177] [ 178] [ 179] [ 180] [ 181]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated ina constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[ 182]
In December, areferendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[ 183] North Caucasus , both local ethnic skirmishes and separatistIslamist insurrections.[ 184] Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, anintermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[ 185] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[ e] [ 186]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[ 187] [ 188] 1998 Russian financial crisis , which resulted in a further GDP decline.[ 189]
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[ 190] Vladimir Putin .[ 191] 2000 presidential election ,[ 192] Second Chechen War .[ 193]
Putin won asecond presidential term in 2004.[ 194] High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw theRussian economy and living standards improve significantly.[ 195] authoritarian state .[ 196] Dmitry Medvedev waselected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legalterm limits ;[ 197] tandemocracy ".[ 198] diplomatic crisis with neighbouringGeorgia , theRusso-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that itoccupies in Georgia .[ 199] European war of the 21st century.[ 200] 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.[ 201] 2012 presidential election , which fueled the "Snow Revolution " protests.[ 202]
Invasion of Ukraine Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 30 September 2022 at the time theirannexation was declared In early 2014, followinga pro-Western revolution in neighbouring Ukraine, Russiaannexed Crimea after adisputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged underRussian occupation .[ 203] [ 204] Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part ofan undeclared war against Ukraine .[ 205] war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government andpro-Russian protests in the region,[ 206] [ 207] nationwide protests against corruption ,[ 208] 2018 presidential election .[ 209]
In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scaleinvasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.[ 210] conventional war in Europe since World War II,[ 211] international condemnation ,[ 212] expanded sanctions against Russia.[ 213]
Putin withShoigu ,Gerasimov ,Belousov ,Yevkurov and commanders of Russia'smilitary districts on 15 May 2024 As a result, Russia was expelled from theCouncil of Europe in March,[ 214] United Nations Human Rights Council in April.[ 215] [ 216] partial mobilisation ", Russia's first mobilisation sinceOperation Barbarossa .[ 217] annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions , the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.[ 218] denounced as illegal .[ 218] estimated to have been killed or injured ,[ 219] [ 220] numerous war crimes .[ 221] [ 222] [ 223] demographic crisis .[ 224]
In June 2023, theWagner Group , a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared anopen rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence , capturingRostov-on-Don , before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[ 225] [ 226] Yevgeny Prigozhin , was laterkilled in a plane crash .[ 227] 2024 presidential election , by winning 88% of the vote, the highest percentage in a presidential election in post-Soviet Russia.[ 228]
Geography Topographic map of RussiaRussia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[ 229] [ 230] Eurasia and has the world'sfourth-longest coastline , of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[ f] [ 232] 41° and82° N , and longitudes19° E and169° W , extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[ 233] [ g] Pluto .[ 234]
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along thesouthernmost regions , which share a significant portion of theCaucasus Mountains (containingMount Elbrus , which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is thehighest peak in Russia and Europe);[ 6] Altai andSayan Mountains inSiberia ; and in theEast Siberian Mountains and theKamchatka Peninsula in theRussian Far East (containingKlyuchevskaya Sopka , which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highestactive volcano in Eurasia).[ 235] [ 229] Ural Mountains , running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form thetraditional boundary between Europe and Asia .[ 236] lowest point in Russia and Europe , is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where theCaspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[ 237]
FrozenLake Baikal nearOlkhon Island , thethird-largest lake island in the world Russia, as one of the world's only three countriesbordering three oceans ,[ 230] [ h] [ 229] Novaya Zemlya ,Franz Josef Land ,Severnaya Zemlya , theNew Siberian Islands ,Wrangel Island , theKuril Islands (four of which aredisputed with Japan ), andSakhalin .[ 238] [ 239] Diomede Islands , administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart;[ 240] Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) fromHokkaido , Japan.[ 2]
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[ 230] fresh water .[ 229] Lake Baikal , the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[ 241] Ladoga andOnega innorthwestern Russia are two of thelargest lakes in Europe .[ 230] total renewable water resources .[ 242] Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is thelongest river in Europe and forms theVolga Delta , the largestriver delta in the continent.[ 243] Ob ,Yenisey ,Lena , andAmur are among the world'slongest rivers .[ 244]
Climate The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of thehumid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from theIndian and Pacific oceans, while theEuropean Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[ 229] subarctic climate , with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostlySakha , where the NorthernPole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[ 238] Russian Arctic islands have apolar climate .[ 229]
Köppen climate classification of RussiaThe coastal part ofKrasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notablySochi , and some coastal and interior strips of theNorth Caucasus possess ahumid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[ 229] oceanic climate .[ 229] semi-arid climate .[ 245]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.[ 229] [ 246] Climate change in Russia is causing more frequentwildfires ,[ 247] permafrost .[ 248]
Biodiversity Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, includingpolar deserts ,tundra ,forest-tundra ,taiga ,mixed and broadleaf forest ,forest steppe ,steppe , semi-desert, andsubtropics .[ 249] [ 6] [ 250]
Yugyd Va National Park in theKomi Republic is the largestnational park in Europe.[ 236] Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species ofvascular plants , 2,200 species ofbryophytes , about 3,000 species oflichens , 7,000–9,000 species ofalgae , and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russianfauna is composed of320 species ofmammals , over732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species ofamphibians ,343 species offreshwater fish (highendemism ), approximately 1,500 species ofsaltwater fishes , 9 species ofcyclostomata , and approximately 100–150,000invertebrates (high endemism).[ 249] [ 251] Russian Red Data Book .[ 249]
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[ 249] biosphere reserves ,[ 252] national parks , and 101nature reserves .[ 253] intact forest , mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[ 254] Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.[ 255]
Government and politics A chart of the political system in Russia Russia, by constitution, is asymmetric federal republic with asemi-presidential system , wherein thepresident is thehead of state ,[ 256] prime minister is thehead of government .[ 6] [ 257] multi-party representative democracy ,[ 257] [ 258]
Legislative: Thebicameral Federal Assembly of Russia , made up of the 450-memberState Duma and the 170-memberFederation Council ,[ 258] federal law ,declares war , approves treaties, has thepower of the purse and the power ofimpeachment of the president.[ 259] Executive: The president is thecommander-in-chief of theArmed Forces , and appoints theGovernment of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[ 256] decrees of unlimited scope , so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.[ 260] Judiciary : TheConstitutional Court ,Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,[ 258] unconstitutional .[ 261] The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[ 262] [ i] United Russia is thedominant political party in Russia , and has been described as "big tent " and the "party of power ".[ 264] [ 265]
Post-Soviet Russia was aflawed democracy during thepresidency of Boris Yeltsin .[ 266] : 223 presidencies of Vladimir Putin andDmitry Medvedev , it has experienced significantdemocratic backsliding .[ 266] : 223 [ 267] [ 268] electoral authoritarianism into a consolidatedauthoritarian regime .[ 266] : 323 [ 269] dictatorship ,[ 8] [ 9] [ 270] [ 271] [ 272] [ 269] [ 266] : 512 [ 273] : 80–81 [ 274] [ 275] totalitarian elements.[ 276] [ 277] Putinism .[ 278]
Political divisions Russia, by constitution, is asymmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation . Unlike the Sovietasymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[ 279]
Thefederal subjects [ j] Federation Council , theupper house of the Federal Assembly.[ 259] autonomy they enjoy.[ 280] federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[ 281] [ 282]
Federal subjects Governance The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[ 283] Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specificethnic minority , and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[ 284] For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[ 285] Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[ 286] Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well asSevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[ 287] 1 autonomous oblast
The only autonomous oblast is theJewish Autonomous Oblast .[ 288]
Foreign relations Putin with G20 counterparts inOsaka , 2019 Russia has the world'ssixth-largest diplomatic network as of 2024[update] United Nations member states , twopartially-recognised states ,[ 289] United Nations observer states , along with143 embassies .[ 290] five permanent members of theUnited Nations Security Council . It is generally described as agreat power ;[ 291] [ 292] [ 293] [ 294] [ 295] [ 296] superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[ 152] [ 297] G20 , theOSCE ,BRICS ,WTO , and theAPEC ; and the leading member state of organisations such as theCIS ,[ 298] EAEU ,[ 299] CSTO ,[ 300] SCO .[ 301] G8 (now theG7 ) and part of theCouncil of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.[ 302] [ 303]
Russia maintains close relationswith neighbouring Belarus , which is a part of theUnion State , a supranational confederation of the two states.[ 304] Serbia has been ahistorically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[ 305] strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests.[ 306] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strongstrategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[ 307] geopolitically importantSouth Caucasus and Central Asia,[ 308] [ 309] [ 310] [ 297] [ 311]
Unfriendly countries list ". The list includes countries that have imposedsanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine.Russia shares a complexstrategic, energy, and defence relationship withTurkey .[ 312] cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[ 313] relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.[ 314] neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically theUnited States and the collective countries of theEuropean Union andNATO —have collapsed.[ 315] [ 316]
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securingregional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in thepost-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as inSyria during itsprolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in theMiddle East .[ 317] Arctic ,[ 318] Asia–Pacific ,[ 319] Africa [ 320] Latin America .[ 321] developing countries of theGlobal South , are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.[ 322] [ 323] [ 324] [ 291] cyberwarfare ,disinformation campaigns ,[ 325] sabotage attacks,[ 326] assassination attempts ,[ 327] airspace violations ,[ 328] [ 329] [ 330]
Military Sukhoi Su-57 , afifth-generation fighter of theRussian Air Force [ 331] The Russian Armed Forces are divided into theGround Forces , theNavy , and theAerospace Forces —and there are also two independent arms of service: theStrategic Missile Troops and theAirborne Troops .[ 332] [ 6] [update] fifth-largest , and about 1.5 millionreserve personnel .[ 333] drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[ 6]
Russia is among the fiverecognised nuclear-weapons states , with the world'slargest stockpile of nuclear weapons ; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.[ 334] ballistic missile submarines ,[ 335] strategic bombers .[ 336] [update] third-highest military expenditure , spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP.[ 337] third-largest arms exporter in 2020–2024,[ 338] defence industry , which produces the majority of its military equipment.[ 339] [ 340] [ 341]
Human rights Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy andhuman rights groups . In particular,Amnesty International andHuman Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[ 342] [ 343]
Since 2004,Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in itsFreedom in the World [ 344] Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in itsDemocracy Index , ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024.[ 345] media freedom , Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries inReporters Without Borders 'Press Freedom Index for 2024.[ 346] human rights activists forunfair elections ,[ 347] opposition political parties and protests ,[ 348] [ 349] persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression andkillings of independent journalists ,[ 350] [ 351] [ 352] censorship of mass media andinternet .[ 353]
Following theRussian invasion of Ukraine in 2022,anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[ 354] Muslims, especiallySalafis , have faced persecution in Russia.[ 355] [ 356] insurgency in the North Caucasus , Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[ 357] [ 358] [ 359] Dagestan , some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[ 360] [ 361] Ingush inRussian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[ 362] filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared tothose used in the Chechen Wars .[ 363] [ 364] laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.[ 365]
Russia has introduced several restrictions onLGBTQ rights . In 2013, ananti-LGBTQ law banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.[ 366] same-sex marriage ,[ 367] Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights groupRussian LGBT Network as a "foreign agent ".[ 368] [ 369] gender reassignment surgery fortransgender people and theSupreme Court of Russia banned theinternational LGBTQ movement as "extremist", outlawing it in the country.[ 370] [ 371] [ 372]
Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form ofcrony capitalism .[ 373] [ 374] kleptocracy ,[ 375] oligarchy ,[ 376] plutocracy .[ 373] [update] Transparency International 's annualCorruption Perceptions Index , ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.[ 377]
Opposition leaderAlexei Navalny leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwideanti-corruption protests of 2017–2018 Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,[ 378] [ 379] [ 380] [ 379] government ,[ 378] law enforcement ,[ 381] healthcare ,[ 382] [ 383] education ,[ 384] [ 385] shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.[ 386] Penal military units have been deployed asstorm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as theStorm-Z andStorm-V units.[ 387] [ 388] [ 389]
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as theRussian Civil Code and theRussian Criminal Code , are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[ 390] [ 391] largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.[ 392] [ 393] [ 392] [update] intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.[ 394] Global Organized Crime Index .[ 395]
Economy Russia has ahigh-income ,[ 396] [ 397] mixed market-oriented economy following aturbulent transition from theSoviet planned model during the 1990s.[ 398] [ 399] [ 400] [ 401] International Monetary Fund , it has theninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and thefourth-largest economy by GDP (PPP ).[ 15] [update] service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by theindustrial sector (30%), while theagricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP.[ 6] eighth-largest in the world.[ 402] Russia's largest trading partner is China.[ 403]
TheMoscow International Business Center Russia'shuman development isranked as "very high" in the annualHuman Development Index .[ 404] final consumption ,[ 405] twelfth-largest consumer market .[ 406] fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world.[ 407] income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries.[ 408] regional economic disparities .[ 409] [ 410] levels of corruption ,[ 411] [ 412] [ 413] human capital flight ,[ 414] aging anddeclining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.[ 415] [ 416]
Following the 2022Russian invasion of Ukraine , the country has facedextensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from theWestern world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[ 213] war economy ,[ 417] military expenditure ,[ 418] household consumption andwages ,[ 419] unemployment ,[ 420] government spending .[ 421] inflation has remained comparatively high,[ 422] [ 423]
Transport and energy Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-runRussian Railways . The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world'sthird-longest , exceeding 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[ 424] [update] fifth-largest road network , with over 1.5 million km of roads.[ 425] [ 426] longest in the world , totaling 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[ 427] 900 airports ,[ 428] busiest isSheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include thePort of Novorossiysk , theGreat Port of Saint Petersburg and thePort of Vladivostok .[ 429]
Russia has one of the world's largest amounts ofenergy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularlynatural gas andoil , which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports.[ 398] as an energy superpower .[ 431] proven gas reserves ,[ 432] coal reserves ,[ 433] proven oil reserves ,[ 434] oil shale reserves in Europe.[ 435] [update] second-largest producer [ 436] third-largest exporter ofnatural gas ,[ 437] producer andexporter ofcrude oil .[ 438] [ 439]
Russia is the world's third-largest energy producer as of 2023[update] [ 440] Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption.[ 441] [ 441] first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader infast neutron reactors .[ 442] fourth-largest nuclear energy producer . Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[ 442] nuclear-powered icebreakers ,[ 443] Northern Sea Route ,[ 443] : 192 Arctic policy in itscontinental shelf .[ 444]
Russia joined theParis Agreement onclimate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019.[ 445] Its greenhouse gas emissions are thefourth-largest in the world as of 2023[update] [ 446] [ 441] fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022[update] [ 447] [ 441] eighth-largest renewable energy producer as of 2023[update] renewable energy resources remain negligible,[ 441] renewable energy transition .[ 448]
Agriculture and fishery Wheat inTomsk Oblast , Siberia Agriculture,forestry andfishing contributes about 3.3% of the country's total GDP as of 2023[update] [ 449] fourth-largest cultivated area , at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land isagricultural ,[ 6] arable .[ 450] breadbasket " of Europe.[ 451] industrial crops , vegetables, and fruits.[ 452] [ 452] largest exporter of wheat and thelargest producer of barley andbuckwheat .[ 403] [ 453] maize andsunflower oil , as well as the leading producer offertiliser .[ 453] [ 403]
Various analysts ofclimate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[ 454] sixth-largest fishing industry , capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[ 455] beluga , and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[ 452]
Science and technology Russia spent about 1% of its GDP onresearch and development in 2019, with the world'stenth-highest budget .[ 456] [ 457] Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians inphysics ,chemistry ,medicine ,economy ,literature andpeace .[ 458] Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.[ 459] [ 460]
Since the times ofNikolay Lobachevsky , who pioneered thenon-Euclidean geometry , andPafnuty Chebyshev , a prominent tutor, Russianmathematicians became among the world's most influential.[ 461] Dmitry Mendeleev invented thePeriodic table , the main framework of modernchemistry .[ 462] Fields Medal .Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever ClayMillennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of thePoincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[ 463]
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765),polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artistAlexander Popov was among theinventors of radio ,[ 464] Nikolai Basov andAlexander Prokhorov were co-inventors oflaser andmaser .[ 465] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field ofsemiconductor junctions , and discoveredlight-emitting diodes .[ 466] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders ofgeochemistry ,biogeochemistry , andradiogeology .[ 467] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research inimmunology .[ 468] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work inclassical conditioning .[ 469] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas oftheoretical physics .[ 470]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified thecentres of origin ofcultivated plants.[ 471] Trofim Lysenko was known mainly forLysenkoism .[ 472] émigrés .Igor Sikorsky was anaviation pioneer .[ 473] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of theiconoscope andkinescope television systems.[ 474] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field ofevolutionary biology for his work in shaping themodern synthesis .[ 475] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of theBig Bang theory.[ 476]
Space exploration Mir , Russianspace station that operated inLEO Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field ofspace technology andspace exploration can be traced back toKonstantin Tsiolkovsky , the father of theoreticalastronautics , whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such asSergey Korolyov ,Valentin Glushko , and many others who contributed to the success of theSoviet space programme in the early stages of theSpace Race and beyond.[ 477] : 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificialsatellite ,Sputnik 1 Yuri Gagarin . Many other Soviet and Russianspace exploration records ensued. In 1963,Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngestwoman in space , having flown a solo mission onVostok 6 .[ 478] Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct aspacewalk , exiting thespace capsule duringVoskhod 2 .[ 479]
In 1957,Laika , aSoviet space dog , became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboardSputnik 2 .[ 480] Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on acelestial body , theMoon .[ 481] Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[ 482] Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet,Venus .[ 483] Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land onMars .[ 484] : 34–60 Lunokhod 1 space exploration rover ,[ 485] Salyut 1 space station .[ 486]
As of 2023[update] [ 487] Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020SpaceX 'sfirst crewed mission ,Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to theISS .[ 488] Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of theLuna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[ 489]
Tourism Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, aUNESCO World Heritage Site Most foreign tourists come from China.[ 490] Golden Ring of Russia , atheme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as theCaucasus Mountains ,[ 491] Trans-Siberian Railway .[ 492] Red Square , thePeterhof Palace , theKazan Kremlin , theTrinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[ 493]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modernmegacity ; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, andmodern skyscrapers .[ 494] Saint Petersburg , the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres,white nights , crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[ 495] State Russian , theState Hermitage , and theTretyakov Gallery , and for theatres such as theBolshoi and theMariinsky . TheMoscow Kremlin and theSaint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[ 496]
Demographics Population density of Russian municipalities according to the 2021 census
Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census
Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),[ 14] 2021 census .[ 497] most populous country in Europe andninth-most populous country in the world. With apopulation density of 8.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (22 inhabitants/sq mi),[ 498] most sparsely populated countries,[ 6] western part .[ 499] highly urbanised , with two-thirds of the population living inurban areas . As of 2024[update] total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.41 children born per woman,[ 500] replacement rate of 2.1 and amongthe lowest in the world .[ 501] oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.[ 6]
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to itsdeath rate exceeding itsbirth rate , which some analysts have called ademographic crisis .[ 502] death rates , increasedbirth rates , and increased immigration.[ 503] COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[ 504] Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 , the demographic crisis has deepened,[ 505] [ 506] renewed emigration .[ 507] [ 508]
Russia is amultinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[ 509] 193 ethnic groups nationwide . In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnicRussians , and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities.[ 510] European descent —of whom the vast majority wereSlavs ,[ 509] [ 511] Finno-Ugric andGermanic peoples .[ 512] [ 513] immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country as of 2019[update] [ 514] post-Soviet states , with about half of them being fromUkraine andKazakhstan as of 2020[update] [ 515]
Largest cities or towns in Russia Rank Name Federal subject Pop. Rank Name Federal subject Pop. 1 Moscow Moscow 13,274,285 11 Samara Samara Oblast 1,154,223 2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 5,652,922 12 Rostov-on-Don Rostov Oblast 1,143,123 3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Oblast 1,637,266 13 Omsk Omsk Oblast 1,101,367 4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk Oblast 1,548,187 14 Voronezh Voronezh Oblast 1,041,722 5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,329,825 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,027,518 6 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Krai 1,211,756 16 Volgograd Volgograd Oblast 1,012,219 7 Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 1,198,245 17 Saratov Saratov Oblast 886,165 8 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Oblast 1,176,770 18 Tyumen Tyumen Oblast 872,077 9 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,166,098 19 Tolyatti Samara Oblast 662,683 10 Krasnodar Krasnodar Krai 1,154,885 20 Makhachkala Dagestan 625,322
Language Minority languages across Russia
Russian is theofficial and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[ 3] native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spokenSlavic language .[ 518] International Space Station ,[ 519] official languages of the United Nations .[ 518]
Russia is amultilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[ 520] [ 521] Russian Census of 2010 , 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 3.1 million spokeTatar , and 1.1 million spokeUkrainian .[ 522] establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[ 523] many languages becoming endangered .[ 524] [ 525]
Religion Trinity Sunday in Russia; theRussian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since thedissolution of the Soviet Union , a country that had a policy ofstate atheism .Russia is constitutionally asecular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[ 526] [ 527] Eastern Orthodox Christianity , chiefly represented by theRussian Orthodox Church ,[ 526] [ 528] [ 527] Christianity ,Islam ,Judaism , andBuddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[ 529] [ 530]
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority ofpeoples in the North Caucasus and someTurkic peoples in theVolga-Ural region.[ 526] [ 528] Kalmykia ,Buryatia ,Zabaykalsky Krai , and they are the vast majority of the population inTuva .[ 528] Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[ 531] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[ 532] Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism ,[ 533] Hinduism ,[ 534] Siberian shamanism [ 535] Tengrism , variousNeo-Theosophical movements such asRoerichism —among other faiths.[ 536] [ 537] [ 538] Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[ 539]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with theMinistry of Justice , published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1%Old Believers ,Catholics orProtestants —25% werebelievers without affiliation to any specific religion , 13% wereatheists , 6.5% were Muslims,[ k] Rodnovery , other Paganisms,Siberian shamanism andTengrism ), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% werereligious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[ 528]
Education Moscow State University , the most prestigious educational institution in Russia[ 540] Russia has a near-universal adultliteracy rate ,[ 541] compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[ 542] free education to its citizens by constitution.[ 543] Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while theMinistry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[ 542] [update] bachelor's degree or an equivalent—which is among thehighest percentages oftertiary-level graduates in the world.[ 544]
Russia'spre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[ 545] [ 542] [ 546]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[ 547] [ 546] universities in Russia areMoscow State University andSaint Petersburg State University .[ 548] federal universities across the country.
Health Russia constitutionally guarantees free,universal health care for all Russian citizens through a compulsory state health insurance programme.[ 549] Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[ 550]
Metallurg, a Soviet-erasanatorium inSochi [ 551] Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021.[ 552] [ 553] sex ratios , with 0.859 males to every female,[ 6] mortality rate .[ 554] [update] life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years (68 years for males and 78 years for females),[ 555] [ 556] [ 557] [ 558] infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000live births ).[ 559]
The principal causes of death in Russia arecardiovascular diseases .[ 560] alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue,[ 561] one of the world's highest , despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[ 562] obesity , with most adults being overweight or obese,[ 563] smoking , which isamong the highest in the world .[ 564] high suicide rate also remains a significant social issue.[ 565]
Culture TheBolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night Russian culture reflects a long, gradual, and complex amalgamation of various elements that coincided with centuries of development, expansion, and interaction with different peoples, artistic movements, and cultures.[ 566] classical music ,[ 567] [ 568] ballet ,[ 569] [ 570] [ 571] mathematics ,[ 461] sport ,[ 572] painting ,[ 573] [ 574] cinema .[ 575] Russian writers andphilosophers have played an important role in the development ofEuropean literature [ 576] [ 577] [ 578] contributions to science, technology , andspace exploration .[ 579] [ 580]
Russia is home to32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , 21 of which are cultural, while 31 lie on the tentative list.[ 581] Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, thedouble-headed eagle , dates back to the Tsardom period and is featured inits coat of arms andheraldry .[ 59] Russian Bear andMother Russia are often used asnational personifications of the country.[ 582] [ 583] Matryoshka dolls are a cultural icon of Russia.[ 584]
Holidays Russia has eight official holidays spanning public, patriotic, and religious commemorations.[ 585] Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[ 586] Defender of the Fatherland Day , dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[ 587] International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits "fifteen times" more compared to other holidays.[ 588] Spring and Labour Day , originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[ 589]
TheScarlet Sails being celebrated along theNeva in Saint Petersburg Victory Day , which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and theEnd of World War II in Europe , is celebrated on 9 May as an annuallarge parade in Moscow's Red Square[ 590] Immortal Regiment civil event.[ 591] Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia'sdeclaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union,[ 592] Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the1612 uprising that marked the end of thePolish occupation of Moscow .[ 593]
There are many popular non-public holidays.Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[ 594] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[ 595] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[ 596] Trinity Sunday .[ 597]
Art and architecture Early Russian painting isrepresented in icons and vibrantfrescos . In the early 15th century, master icon painterAndrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.[ 573] Russian Academy of Arts , which was established in 1757 to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[ 59] Ivan Argunov ,Dmitry Levitzky ,Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[ 598] Karl Briullov andAlexander Ivanov , both of whom were known forRomantic historical canvases.[ 599] [ 600] Ivan Aivazovsky , another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters ofmarine art .[ 601]
In the 1860s, a group of criticalrealists (Peredvizhniki ), led byIvan Kramskoy ,Ilya Repin andVasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[ 602] [ 603] symbolism , represented byMikhail Vrubel andNicholas Roerich .[ 604] [ 605] Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era wereEl Lissitzky ,[ 606] Kazimir Malevich ,Natalia Goncharova ,Wassily Kandinsky , andMarc Chagall .[ 607]
The history ofRussian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs and thechurch architecture of Kievan Rus' .[ 573] [ 608] Christianization of Kievan Rus' brought centuriesByzantine architecture .[ 573] [ 609] iconostasis .[ 573] Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects broughtRenaissance trends to theGrand Principality of Moscow , which influenced the reconstruction of theMoscow Kremlin .[ 573] [ 610] tent-like churches and theonion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[ 611] Yaroslavl , gradually paving the way for theNaryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[ 612]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.[ 573] Rococo architecture led to theworks ofBartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century,Vasily Bazhenov ,Matvey Kazakov , andIvan Starov , created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[ 573] Neoclassical architecture .[ 613] Empire style became thede facto architectural style.[ 614] Neo-Byzantine andRussian Revival style.[ 573] [ 615] Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[ 616] Art Nouveau ,[ 617] Constructivism ,[ 618] Socialist Classicism .[ 619]
Music Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893),c. 1888 Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[ 567] Mikhail Glinka along with other members ofThe Mighty Handful , who were later succeeded by theBelyayev circle ,[ 620] Russian Musical Society led by composersAnton andNikolay Rubinstein .[ 621] Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century bySergei Rachmaninoff . World-renowned composers of the 20th century includeAlexander Scriabin ,Alexander Glazunov ,[ 567] Igor Stravinsky ,Sergei Prokofiev andDmitri Shostakovich , and laterEdison Denisov ,Sofia Gubaidulina ,[ 622] Georgy Sviridov ,[ 623] Alfred Schnittke .[ 622]
During the Soviet era,popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the twoballadeers —Vladimir Vysotsky andBulat Okudzhava ,[ 622] Alla Pugacheva .[ 624] Jazz , even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[ 622] rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such asAria ,Aquarium ,[ 625] DDT ,[ 626] Kino ;[ 627] Viktor Tsoi , was in particular, a gigantic figure.[ 628] Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such ast.A.T.u. [ 629]
Literature and philosophy Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed.[ 576] [ 577] Middle Ages , when epics and chronicles inOld East Slavic were composed.[ 630] Age of Enlightenment , literature had grown in importance, with works fromMikhail Lomonosov ,Denis Fonvizin ,Gavrila Derzhavin , andNikolay Karamzin .[ 576] Golden Age of Russian Poetry , literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[ 631] Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent:Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégéAlexander Pushkin came to the fore.[ 632] Mikhail Lermontov ,Nikolay Nekrasov ,Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy ,Fyodor Tyutchev andAfanasy Fet .[ 576]
The first great Russian novelist wasNikolai Gogol .[ 576] [ 633] Realism ,[ 576] Ivan Turgenev , who mastered both short stories and novels.[ 634] Fyodor Dostoevsky andLeo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.[ 576] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prosesatire ,[ 576] [ 635] Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[ 636] Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[ 576] [ 637] Ivan Krylov ,[ 638] Vissarion Belinsky ,[ 576] [ 639] Aleksandr Griboyedov andAleksandr Ostrovsky .[ 640] [ 641] Silver Age of Russian Poetry .[ 576] Alexander Blok ,Anna Akhmatova ,Boris Pasternak , andKonstantin Balmont .[ 642] Aleksandr Kuprin , Nobel Prize winnerIvan Bunin ,Leonid Andreyev ,Yevgeny Zamyatin ,Dmitry Merezhkovsky andAndrei Bely .[ 576]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet andwhite émigré parts. In the 1930s,Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia.[ 576] Maxim Gorky , who laid the foundations of this style.[ 645] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[ 646] Nikolay Ostrovsky 's novelHow the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature.[ 576] Vladimir Nabokov [ 647] Isaac Asimov , who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[ 648] Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[ 649]
Russian literature faced rapid and difficult changes during the turbulent post-Soviet 1990s, with writers and publishers struggling to adjust to new economic and political developments.[ 650] [ 576] [ 651] [ 652] postmodernists Victor Pelevin andVladimir Sorokin , remained the leading Russian writers.[ 653]
Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented byVladimir Solovyov ,Nikolai Berdyaev ,Pavel Florensky ,Semyon Frank ,Nikolay Lossky ,Vasily Rozanov , and others.[ 654] Helena Blavatsky gained an international following as the leading theoretician ofTheosophy and the co-founder of theTheosophical Society .[ 655] Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers ofagrarian populism .[ 656] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father ofanarchism .[ 657] Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist ofanarcho-communism .[ 658] Mikhail Bakhtin 's writings have significantly inspired scholars in various fields.[ 659] Vladimir Lenin , a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known asLeninism .[ 660] Leon Trotsky , Lenin's contemporary and co-revolutionary, founded his own strain of Marxism known asTrotskyism .[ 661] Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century.[ 662]
Cuisine Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.Russian cuisine has been formed by the country's diverse climate, cultural and religious traditions, and vast geography; it shares similarities with neighbouring countries. Crops ofrye , wheat,barley , andmillet provide the ingredients for various breads,pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.Bread , of many varieties,[ 663] [ 664] shchi ,borsch ,ukha ,solyanka , andokroshka .Smetana (a heavysour cream ) andmayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[ 665] [ 666] Pirozhki ,[ 667] blini ,[ 668] syrniki are native types ofpancakes .[ 669] Beef Stroganoff ,[ 670] : 266 Chicken Kiev ,[ 670] : 320 pelmeni ,[ 671] shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[ 672] golubtsy ) usually filled with meat.[ 673] Olivier salad ,[ 674] vinegret ,[ 675] dressed herring .[ 676]
Russia'snational non-alcoholic drink iskvass ,[ 677] vodka ; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[ 678] [ 679] beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[ 680] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[ 681] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[ 682]
Mass media and cinema Ostankino Tower in Moscow, thetallest freestanding structure in Europe[ 683] There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating areTASS ,RIA Novosti ,Sputnik , andInterfax .[ 684] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[ 685] Radio Rossii ,Vesti FM ,Echo of Moscow ,Radio Mayak , andRusskoye Radio . Of the 16,000 registered newspapers,Argumenty i Fakty Komsomolskaya Pravda ,Rossiyskaya Gazeta Izvestia , andMoskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-runChannel One andRussia-1 are the leading news channels, whileRT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[ 685] largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[ 686]
Russian and laterSoviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such asBattleship Potemkin greatest film of all time at theBrussels World's Fair in 1958.[ 687] [ 688] Sergei Eisenstein andAndrei Tarkovsky , would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[ 689] [ 690] Lev Kuleshov , who developed the groundbreakingSoviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, theAll-Union Institute of Cinematography .[ 691] Dziga Vertov 's "Kino-Eye " theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[ 692] Chapaev The Cranes Are Flying Ballad of a Soldier [ 575]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[ 575] Eldar Ryazanov andLeonid Gaidai were immensely popular, with many of their catchphrases still in use today.[ 693] [ 694] Sergey Bondarchuk directed anOscar -winningfilm adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epicWar and Peace the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[ 575] Vladimir Motyl 'sWhite Sun of the Desert ostern ; the film is traditionally watched bycosmonauts before any trip into space.[ 695] [ 696]
Sports Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[ 697] Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winningEuro 1960 ,[ 698] Euro 1988 .[ 699] CSKA Moscow andZenit Saint Petersburg won theUEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[ 700] [ 701] Russian national football team reached the semi-finals ofEuro 2008 .[ 702] 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup ,[ 703] 2018 FIFA World Cup .[ 704] [ 705]
Maria Sharapova , formerworld No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[ 706] Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and theSoviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[ 572] Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[ 707] Russian national basketball team wonEuroBasket 2007 ,[ 708] PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[ 709] Russian Grand Prix was held at theSochi Autodrom in theSochi Olympic Park , until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[ 710] [ 711]
Historically,Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in theOlympic Games .[ 572] rhythmic gymnastics , and Russiansynchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[ 712] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especiallypair skating andice dancing .[ 713] [ 714] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[ 715] 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[ 716] 2014 Winter Olympics and the2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[ 717] [ 718] Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due todoping violations , which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[ 719]
See also
Notes ^ Crimea , which wasannexed by Russia in 2014, remainsinternationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[ 1] annexed —though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remaininternationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmostKuril Islands have been the subject of aterritorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[ 2] ^ Russian :Россия ,romanized : Rossiya [rɐˈsʲijə] ^ Russian :Российская Федерация romanized :Rossiyskaya Federatsiya IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə ^ The fourteen countries bordering Russia are[ 18] Norway andFinland to the northwest;Estonia ,Latvia ,Belarus andUkraine to the west, as well asLithuania andPoland (withKaliningrad Oblast );Georgia andAzerbaijan to the southwest;Kazakhstan andMongolia to the south;China andNorth Korea to the southeast. Russia also sharesmaritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the twopartially recognised breakaway states ofSouth Ossetia andAbkhazia that it occupies in Georgia. ^ Most notably theBudyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis , theRussian apartment bombings , theMoscow theater hostage crisis , and theBeslan school siege ^ Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along theCaspian Sea , which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[ 231] ^ Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents ofAustralia ,Antarctica , and Europe, although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America. ^ Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: theBlack Sea and theSea of Azov , to its west: theBaltic Sea , to its north: theBarents Sea (White Sea ,Pechora Sea ), theKara Sea , theLaptev Sea , and theEast Siberian Sea , to its northeast: theChukchi Sea and theBering Sea , and to its southeast: theSea of Okhotsk and theSea of Japan . ^ In 2020,constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[ 263] ^ Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: theRepublic of Crimea and the federal city ofSevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,[ 1] Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022. ^ The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namelyChechnya andIngushetia , which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[ 528]
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Sources
Further reading Bartlett, Roger P. (2005).A history of Russia online Bartlett, Rosamund ; Benn, Anna, eds. (1997).Literary Russia. A Guide . London: Picador.ISBN 0-333-71197-1 Borrero, Mauricio (2004).Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present ISBN 0-8160-4454-6 Breslauer, George W.; Colton, Timothy J. (2017).Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus )online Archived 21 January 2022 at theWayback Machine Brown, Archie, ed. (1982).The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union online Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016).The Social History of Post-Communist Russia ISBN 978-1-317-32846-9 . Retrieved11 April 2022 . Florinsky, Michael T. ed.McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961). Frye, Timothy.Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021)excerpt Archived 31 March 2022 at theWayback Machine Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson.Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019)excerpt Hosking, Geoffrey A.Russia and the Russians: a history (2011)online Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch ; Bealby, John Thomas;Phillips, Walter Alison (1911)."Russia" Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica 869– 912.Pynnöniemi, Katri (2021). Pynnöniemi, Katri (ed.).Nexus of Patriotism and Militarism in Russia: A Quest for Internal Cohesion doi :10.33134/HUP-9 .ISBN 978-952-369-035-6 Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel (1995).The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering New York University Press .ISBN 9780814769409 Reiman, Michael (2016).About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present . Peter Lang.ISBN 978-3-631-67136-8 JSTOR j.ctv2t4dn7 . Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg.A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018)9th edition 1993 online Rosefielde, Steven.Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020)excerpt Archived 27 May 2021 at theWayback Machine Shadrina, Anna (2025).The Babushka Phenomenon: Older women and the political sociology of ageing in Russia ISBN 9781800089099 Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds.Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014)excerpt Archived 30 March 2022 at theWayback Machine ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics. Walker, Shauin.The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP)excerpt Archived 8 April 2022 at theWayback Machine
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1 Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and another continent.2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia.3 Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf.4 Governed by theHoly See which has sovereignty over Vatican City.
Sovereign states States with limited recognition History
"Participants " (11)
Sports Military Economics Organization Outside the CIS framework
Summits Member states Observer states Dialogue partners Guests Applicants See also
Member states
Members Observers
Countries
Muslim
International
History
Sessions
Demographics 1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".
International National Geographic Academics Artists People Other
66°N 94°E / 66°N 94°E /66; 94
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