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Shoot 'em ups (also known asshmups orSTGs)[1][2] are asub-genre ofaction games. There is no consensus as to which design elements compose a shoot 'em up; some restrict the definition to games featuring spacecraft and certain types of character movement, while others allow a broader definition including characters on foot and a variety of perspectives.
The genre's roots can be traced back to earliershooting games, including target shootingelectro-mechanical games of the mid-20th-century, but did not receive a video game release untilSpacewar! (1962). The shoot 'em up genre was established by the hitarcade gameSpace Invaders, which popularised and set the general template for the genre in 1978, and has spawned many clones. The genre was then further developed by arcade hits such asAsteroids andGalaxian in 1979. Shoot 'em ups were popular throughout the 1980s to early 1990s, diversifying into a variety of subgenres such asscrolling shooters, run and gun games and rail shooters. In the mid-1990s, shoot 'em ups became a niche genre based on design conventions established in the 1980s, and increasingly catered to specialist enthusiasts, particularly in Japan. "Bullet hell" games are a subgenre of shooters that features overwhelming numbers of enemyprojectiles, often in visually impressive formations.
A "shoot 'em up", also known as a "shmup"[3][4] or "STG" (the common Japanese abbreviation for "shooting games"),[1][2] is a game in which the protagonist combats a large number of enemies by shooting at them while dodging their fire. The controlling player must rely primarily on reaction times to succeed.[5][6] Beyond this, critics differ on exactly which design elements constitute a shoot 'em up. Some restrict the genre to games featuring some kind of craft, using fixed orscrolling movement.[5] Others widen the scope to include games featuring such protagonists as robots or humans on foot, as well as including games featuring "on-rails" (or "into the screen") and "run and gun" movement.[6][7][8] Mark Wolf restricts the definition to games featuring multiple antagonists ("'em" being short for "them"), calling games featuring one-on-one shooting "combat games".[9] Formerly, critics described any game where the primary design element was shooting as a "shoot 'em up",[6] but later shoot 'em ups became a specific, inward-looking genre based on design conventions established in those shooting games of the 1980s.[7]
Shoot 'em ups are a subgenre ofaction games. These games are usually viewed from atop-down orside-view perspective, and players must use ranged weapons to take action at a distance. The player'savatar is typically a vehicle or spacecraft under constant attack. Thus, the player's goal is to shoot as quickly as possible at anything that moves or threatens them to reach the end of the level, usually with aboss battle.[10] In some games, the player's character can withstand some damage or a single hit will result in their destruction.[4] The main skills required in shoot 'em ups are fast reactions and memorising enemy attack patterns. Some games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and the player has to memorise their patterns to survive. These games belong to one of the fastest-pacedvideo game genres.
Large numbers of enemy characters programmed to behave in an easily predictable manner are typically featured.[11] These enemies may behave in a certain way dependent on their type, or attack in formations that the player can learn to predict. The basic gameplay tends to be straightforward with many varieties of weapons.[4] Shoot 'em ups rarely have realistic physics. Characters can instantly change direction with noinertia, and projectiles move in a straight line at constant speeds.[10] The player's character can collect "power-ups" which may afford the character's greater protection, an "extra life", health, shield, or upgraded weaponry.[12] Different weapons are often suited to different enemies, but these games seldom keep track of ammunition. As such, players tend to fire indiscriminately, and their weapons only damage legitimate targets.[10]
Shoot 'em ups are categorized by their design elements, particularly viewpoint and movement:[6]
Fixed shooters restrict the player and enemies to a single screen, and the player primarily moves along a single axis, such as back and forth along the bottom of the screen.[13] Examples includeSpace Invaders (1978),Galaxian (1979),Phoenix (1980), andGalaga (1981). InPooyan (1982), the fixed axis of movement is vertical, along the right side of the screen. InCentipede (1980) andGorf (1981), the player primarily moves left and right along the bottom, but several inches of vertical motion are also allowed within an invisible box.
Multidirectional shooters allow 360-degree movement where the protagonist may rotate and move in any direction[14] such asAsteroids (1979) andMad Planets (1983). Multidirectional shooters with one joystick for movement and one joystick for firing in any direction independent of movement are calledtwin-stick shooters. One of the first games to popularize twin-stick controls wasRobotron: 2084 (1982).[15][16]
Space shooters are a thematic variant of involvingspacecraft inouter space. Following the success ofSpace Invaders, space shooters were the dominant subgenre during the late 1970s to early 1980s.[17] These games can overlap with other subgenres as well asspace combat games.
Tube shooters feature craft flying through an abstract tube,[18] such asTempest (1981) andGyruss (1983). There is still a single axis of motion, making these a subset of fixed shooters.
Rail shooters limit the player to moving around the screen while following a specific route;[19] these games often feature an "into the screen" viewpoint, with which the action is seen from behind theplayer character, and moves "into the screen", while the player retains control over dodging.[6][20] Examples includeSpace Harrier (1985),Captain Skyhawk (1990),Starblade (1991),Star Fox (1993),Star Wars: Rebel Assault (1993),Panzer Dragoon (1995), andSin and Punishment (2000). Rail shooters that uselight guns are calledlight gun shooters, such asOperation Wolf (1987),Lethal Enforcers (1992),Virtua Cop (1994),Point Blank (1994),Time Crisis (1995),The House of the Dead (1996) andElemental Gearbolt (1997). Light-gun games that are "on rails" are usually not considered to be in the shoot-em-up category, but rather their own first-person light-gun shooter category.[21]
Cute 'em ups feature brightly colored graphics depicting surreal settings and enemies. Cute 'em ups tend to have unusual, oftentimes completely bizarre opponents for the player to fight, withTwinbee andFantasy Zone first pioneering the subgenre,[22] along withParodius,Cotton, andHarmful Park being additional key games.[23] Some cute 'em ups may employ overtly sexual characters and innuendo.[24]
Vertically scrolling shooters present the action fromabove and scroll up (or occasionally down) the screen.
Horizontally scrolling shooters usually present a side-on view and scroll left to right (or less often, right to left).[6][7][25]
Isometrically scrolling shooters orisometric shooters, such asSega'sZaxxon (1982), use anisometric point of view.[7]
A popular implementation style of scrolling shooters has the player's flying vehicle moving forward, at a fixed rate, through an environment. Examples areScramble (1981),Xevious (1982),Gradius (1986),Darius (1987),R-Type (1987),Einhänder (1997). In contrast,Defender (1981) allows the player to move left or right at will.
Run and gun games have protagonists that move through the world on foot and shoot attackers. Examples include the vertically scrolling, overhead view gamesFront Line (1982),Commando (1985), andIkari Warriors (1986). Side-scrolling run and gun games often combine elements fromplatform games, such as the ability to jump:Contra (1987),Metal Slug (1996) andCuphead (2017). Run and gun games may also useisometric viewpoints and may have multidirectional movement.[26][27][28]
Bullet hell (弾幕,danmaku, literally "barrage" or "bullet curtain") is a subgenre of shooters in which the screen becomes crowded with complex "curtain fire" enemy patterns. It is also characterized by collision boxes that are smaller than the sprites themselves, to accommodate maneuvering through these crowded firing patterns.[29][30] This style of game, also known as "manic shooters"[7] or "maniac shooters",[31] originated in the mid-1990s as an offshoot of scrolling shooters.[31] TheDonPachi andTouhou Project series are early titles establishing the principle of bullet hells.[32]
Abullet heaven orreverse bullet hell is a subgenre characterized by the player character collecting or unlocking abilities and attacks whose visuals overlap and clutter the game screen as the game progresses. They also share a feature of many enemy characters, commonly called "hordes", walking toward the player from off-screen. This genre is generally attributed toVampire Survivors, released in 2022.[33]
A small subgenre of shooter games that emphasizes chaotic, reflex-based gameplay designed to put the player in a trance-like state. In trance shooters, enemy patterns usually have randomized elements, forcing the player to rely on reflexes rather than pattern memorization. Games of this type usually feature colorful, abstract visuals, and electronic music (oftentechno music).Jeff Minter is commonly credited with originating the style withTempest 2000 (1994) and subsequent games includingSpace Giraffe,Gridrunner++, andPolybius (2017). Other examples include theGeometry Wars series,Space Invaders Extreme,Super Stardust HD, andResogun.
The concept ofshooting games existed beforevideo games, dating back to shooting gallerycarnival games in the late 19th century[34] andtarget sports such asarchery,bowling anddarts. Mechanical target shooting games first appeared inEngland'samusement arcades around the turn of the 20th century,[35] before appearing in America by the 1920s.[36] Shooting gallery games eventually evolved into more sophisticated target shootingelectro-mechanical games (EM games) such asSega's influentialPeriscope (1965). Shooting video games have roots in EM shooting games.[34][37]
Video game journalist Brian Ashcraft argues theearly mainframe gameSpacewar! (1962) was the first shoot 'em up video game.[38] It was developed at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961, for the developers' amusement, and presents a space battle between two craft. It was remade four times as an arcade video game in the 1970s.[39]
Space Invaders (1978) is most frequently cited as the "first" or "original" in the genre.[6][7][40][41] A seminal game created byTomohiro Nishikado of Japan'sTaito, it led to proliferation of shooter games.[42] It pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing speed.[41] Nishikado conceived the game by combining elements ofBreakout (1976) with those of earlier target shooting games, and simple alien creatures inspired byH. G. Wells'The War of the Worlds. The hardware was unable to render the movement of aircraft, so the game was set in space, with a black background. It had a more interactive style of play than earlier target shooting games, with multiple enemies who responded to the player-controlled cannon's movement and fired back at the player. The game ended when the player was killed by the enemies.[43][37] While earlier shooting games allowed the player to shoot at targets,Space Invaders was the first where multiple enemies fired back at the player.[44] It also introduced the idea of giving the player multiplelives[45] and popularized the concept of achieving ahigh score.[46][47][48]
With these elements,Space Invaders set the general template for the shoot 'em up genre.[49] It became one of the most widely cloned shooting games, spawning more than 100 imitators with only the most minor differences (if any) from the original.[50] Most shooting games released since then[42] have followed its "multiple life, progressively difficultlevel" paradigm, according toEugene Jarvis.[51]
Following the success ofSpace Invaders, shoot 'em ups became the dominant genre for much of thegolden age of arcade video games, from the late 1970s up until the early 1980s, particularly the "space shooter" subgenre.[17] In 1979,Namco'sGalaxian—"the granddaddy of all top-down shooters", according to IGN—was released.[52] Its use of colour graphics and individualised antagonists were considered "strong evolutionary concepts" among space ship games.[53] In 1981Gorf brought joystick control and (limited) vertical as well as horizontal movement to the vertically-oriented fixed-shooter genre, whileSpace Invaders andGalaxian have only horizontal movement controlled by a pair of buttons.[54][55]Atari'sAsteroids (1979) was a hit multi-directional shooter, taking fromSpacewar! the ability for the player's ship to roam the entire screen and to rotate, move and shoot in any direction.[56]
TheSpace Invaders format evolved into thevertical scrolling shooter sub-genre.[37]SNK's debut shoot 'em upOzma Wars (1979) featured vertical scrolling backgrounds and enemies,[57] and it was the firstaction game to feature a supply of energy, similar tohit points.[58] Namco'sXevious, released in 1982, was one of the first and most influential vertical scrolling shooters.[7]Xevious is also the first to convincingly portray dithered/shaded organic landscapes as opposed to blocks-in-space or wireframe obstacles.[59]
Side-scrolling shoot 'em ups emerged in the early 1980s.Defender, introduced byWilliams Electronics in late 1980 and entering production in early 1981, allowed side-scrolling in both directions in a wrap-around game world, unlike most later games in the genre.[7] Thescrolling helped remove design limitations associated with the screen,[60] and it also featured aminimap radar.[61]Scramble, released byKonami in early 1981, had continuous scrolling in a single direction and was the first side-scrolling shooter with multiple distinctlevels.[7]
In the early 1980s, Japanese arcade developers began moving away from space shooters towards characteraction games, whereas American arcade developers continued to focus on space shooters during the early 1980s, up until the end of the arcade golden age. According toEugene Jarvis, American developers were greatly influenced by Japanese space shooters but took the genre in a different direction from the "more deterministic, scripted, pattern-type" gameplay of Japanese games, towards a more "programmer-centric design culture, emphasizing algorithmic generation of backgrounds and enemy dispatch" and "an emphasis on random-event generation, particle-effect explosions and physics" as seen in arcade games such as his ownDefender andRobotron: 2084 (1982) as well as Atari'sAsteroids (1979).[17]Robotron: 2084 was an influential game in the multi-directional shooter subgenre.[62][63]
Some games experimented withpseudo-3D perspectives at the time.Nintendo's attempt at the genre,Radar Scope (1980), borrowed heavily fromSpace Invaders andGalaxian, but added a three-dimensional third-person perspective; the game was a commercial failure, however.[64] Atari'sTempest (1981) was one of the earliest tube shooters and a more successful attempt to incorporate a 3D perspective into shooter games;[65]Tempest went on to influence several later rail shooters.[66][67] Sega'sZaxxon (1981) introducedisometric video game graphics to the genre.[17]
The term "shmup" is believed to have been coined in 1985 by the BritishCommodore 64 magazineZzap!64. In the July 1985 issue, the term was used by the editor Chris Anderson and reviewerJulian Rignall.[68]
The same year saw the release of Konami'sGradius, which gave the player greater control over the choice of weaponry, thus introducing another element of strategy.[7] The game also introduced the need for the player to memorise levels in order to achieve any measure of success.[69]Gradius, with its iconic protagonist, defined the side-scrolling shoot 'em up andspawned a series spanning several sequels.[70] The following year saw the emergence of one of Sega's forefront series with its gameFantasy Zone. The game received acclaim for its surreal graphics and setting and the protagonist, Opa-Opa, was for a time considered Sega'smascot.[71] The game borrowedDefender's device of allowing the player to control the direction of flight and along with the earlierTwinBee (1985), is an early archetype of the "cute 'em up" subgenre.[7][72] In 1986, Taito releasedKiKi KaiKai, an overhead multi-directional shooter. The game is notable for using a traditional fantasy setting in contrast to most shoot 'em up games filled with science fiction motifs.[73]R-Type, an acclaimed side-scrolling shoot 'em up, was released in 1987 byIrem, employing slower paced scrolling than usual, with difficult, claustrophobic levels calling for methodical strategies.[3][74] 1990'sRaiden was the beginning of another acclaimed and enduring series to emerge from this period.[75][76]
Run and gun games became popular in the mid-1980s. These games feature characters on foot, rather than spacecraft, and often have military themes. The origins of this type of shooter go back toSheriff byNintendo, released in 1979.[77]SNK'sSasuke vs. Commander (1980), which had relatively detailed background graphics for its time, pit asamurai against a horde ofninjas,[78] along withboss fights.[79] Taito'sFront Line (1982) introduced thevertical scrolling format later popularized byCapcom'sCommando (1985), which established the standard formula used by later run and gun games.[28][80] Sega'sNinja Princess (1985), which released slightly beforeCommando, was a run and gun game that was distinctive for itsfeudal Japan setting andfemale ninja protagonist who throwsshuriken and knives.[80]SNK'sTNK III, released later in 1985, combined theFront Line tank shooter format with unique rotaryjoystick controls, which they later combined withCommando-inspired run and gun gameplay to developIkari Warriors (1986), which further popularized run and gun shooters.[81]Ikari Warriors also drew inspiration from theaction filmRambo: First Blood Part II (1985),[57] which it was originally intended to be an adaptation of.[81] Contemporary critics considered military themes and protagonists similar toRambo orSchwarzenegger prerequisites for a shoot 'em up, as opposed to anaction-adventure game.[28][82] The success ofCommando andIkari Warriors led to run and gun games becoming the dominant style of shoot 'em up during the late 1980s to early 1990s, with the term "shoot 'em up" itself becoming synonymous with "run and gun" during this period.[28]
Konami'sGreen Beret (1985), known asRush'n Attack in North America, adapted theCommando formula to aside-scrolling format.[83] Later notable side-scrolling run and gun shooters include Namco'sRolling Thunder (1986), which addedcover mechanics to the formula,[84] and Data East'sRoboCop (1988).[28] In 1987, Konami createdContra, a side-scrolling coin-op arcade game, and later aNES game, that was particularly acclaimed for its multi-directional aiming and two-player cooperative gameplay. By the early 1990s and thepopularity of 16-bit consoles, the scrolling shooter genre was overcrowded, with developers struggling to make their games stand out, with exceptions such as the inventiveGunstar Heroes (1993) byTreasure.[85]
Sega'spseudo-3Drail shooterBuck Rogers: Planet of Zoom demonstrated the potential of3D shoot 'em up gameplay in 1982.[86] Sega'sSpace Harrier, a rail shooter released in 1985, broke new ground graphically and its wide variety of settings across multiple levels gave players more to aim for than high scores.[87][88] In 1986,Arsys Software releasedWiBArm, a shooter that switched between a2D side-scrolling view in outdoor areas to a fully 3D polygonalthird-person perspective inside buildings, while bosses were fought in an arena-style 2D battle, with the game featuring a variety of weapons and equipment.[89] In 1987, Square's3-D WorldRunner was an early stereoscopic 3-D shooter played from a third-person perspective,[90] followed later that year by its sequelJJ,[91] and the following year bySpace Harrier 3-D which used the SegaScope3-D shutter glasses.[92] That same year, Sega'sThunder Blade switched between both a top-down view and a third-person view, and featured the use offorce feedback, where the joystick vibrates.[93]
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Over the course of the 1990s, a new subgenre of shooters evolved, known as "danmaku (弾幕, "barrage") in Japan, and often referred to as "bullet hell" or "manic shooters" in English-speaking regions. These games are characterized by high numbers of enemy projectiles, often in complex "curtain fire" patterns, as well as collision boxes that are smaller than the sprites themselves, allowing the player to fit between the narrow gaps in enemy fire.[7][31]
Bullet hell games were first popularized in Japanese arcades during a time when 3D games and fighting games were eclipsing other games. The flashy firing patterns were intended to grab players attention.[31]Toaplan'sBatsugun (1993) is often considered a pivotal point in the development of this subgenre.[94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103] After the closure of Toaplan, the following year, a number of studios formed from former Toaplan staff that would continue to develop this style, includingCave (formed byBatsugun's main creator Tsuneki Ikeda) who released 1995's seminalDonPachi, and Takumi, who would develop theGigaWing series.[104] Bullet hell games marked another point where the shooter genre began to cater to more dedicated players.[7][31] Games such asGradius had been more difficult thanSpace Invaders orXevious,[69] but bullet hell games were yet more inward-looking and aimed at dedicated fans of the genre looking for greater challenges.[7][105] While shooter games featuring protagonists on foot largely moved to 3D-based genres, popular, long-running series such asContra andMetal Slug continued to receive new sequels.[106][107][108] Rail shooters have rarely been released in the new millennium, with onlyRez andPanzer Dragoon Orta achieving cult recognition.[19][88][109] In the early 2000s, the genre achieved recognition through the mobile gameSpace Impact, which is considered one of the important games in thehistory of mobile games.[110]
Treasure's shoot 'em up,Radiant Silvergun (1998), introduced an element of narrative to the genre. It was critically acclaimed for its refined design, though it was not released outside Japan and remains a much sought-after collector's item.[3][7][111][112] Its successorIkaruga (2001) featured improved graphics and was again acclaimed as one of the best games in the genre. BothRadiant Silvergun andIkaruga were later released onXbox Live Arcade.[3][7][113] TheTouhou Project series spans 28 years and 32 games as of 2024 and was listed in theGuinness World Records in October 2010 for being the "most prolific fan-made shooter series".[114] The genre has undergone something of a resurgence with the release of theXbox 360,PlayStation 3 andWii online services,[113] while in Japan arcade shoot 'em ups retain a deep-rooted niche popularity.[115]Geometry Wars: Retro Evolved was released on Xbox Live Arcade in 2005 and in particular stood out from the various re-releases andcasual games available on the service.[116] The PC has also seen its share ofdōjin shoot 'em ups likeCrimzon Clover,Jamestown: Legend of the Lost Colony,Xenoslaive Overdrive, and theeXceed series. However, despite the genre's continued appeal to an enthusiastic niche of players, shoot 'em up developers are increasingly embattled financially by the power of home consoles and their attendant genres.[115][117]
The first shooter is generally acknowledged to beSpace Invaders.
To further complement this game, Midway added a new change to mobility and firepower capabilities. Instead of the standard laser base controls (right and left),Gorf uses a multidimensional joystick which allows free movement up, down, left or right in a set zone.
Also different is the multidirectional joystick with its trigger. The player's ship can move anywhere within a block of space at the bottom of the screen; although it can move in an infinite number of directions and curves, it always points upward. The player can control all of this motion, and fire, with just one hand.
Radar Scope owed much to the popularity ofSpace Invaders andGalaxian, but nevertheless felt original thank to its 3D third-person perspective.
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