| Salmonberry | |
|---|---|
 | |
 | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Rosaceae |
| Genus: | Rubus |
| Species: | R. spectabilis |
| Binomial name | |
| Rubus spectabilis | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
| |
Rubus spectabilis, thesalmonberry, is a species ofbramble in the rose familyRosaceae, native to the west coast ofNorth America from west-centralAlaska toCalifornia, inland as far asIdaho.[2][3][4] Like many other species in the genusRubus, the salmonberry plant bears edible fruit, typically yellow-orange or red in color, resemblingraspberries in appearance.
Rubus spectabilis is adeciduous,rhizomatous shrub growing to 1–4 metres (3.3–13.1 feet) tall and 9 m (30 ft) wide, with a moderate growth rate of 0.3–0.6 m (12–24 inches) per year.[5] 30–40% of the plant's biomass is underground.[6] It hasperennial (notbiennial) woody stems that are covered with fineprickles, especially on new growth.[7] The plant has golden or yellowish brown erect or arching stems (also known as "canes") that often form thickets, like many otherbrambles in the genusRubus.
Theleaves are alternate, trifoliate (with three leaflets), 7–22 centimetres (3–8+1⁄2 in) long and typically ovate in shape, with the terminal leaflet being larger than the two side leaflets, which are sometimes shallowly lobed. The margins of the leaflets aredoubly serrate.[8][9] The leaves are also stipulate and are smooth to slightly hairy on the top surface, compared to the underside, which are typically more pale and hairy.[9] In late fall and winter months, salmonberry leaves will fall, and the plant remains dormant or maintains minimal shoot elongation during the winter.[10]
The flowers are2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with a calyx of five hairysepals and five pinkish-purple petals that surround a cluster of stamens; they are produced between April and July, either singly or in clusters of 2 or 3. The flowers areperfect (bisexual), containing 75–100 stamens and many individual pistils with superior ovaries.[8][9] While fruit production is largely dependent on the environment, there is an estimated growth of 30 fruits per 3 square metres (32 sq ft) and 17–65 seeds per fruit.[11] Salmonberry sprout mainly from the buds found on rhizomes, stumps, and root crowns of the plant. The flowers cannotself-pollinate and are instead pollinated by insects, hummingbirds, and beetles.[10]
Salmonberries ripen approximately 30–36 days after pollination, from early May to late July in most of thePacific Northwest and July to August in cooler Northern climates. They are1.5–2 cm (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) long and resemble large shiny yellow to orange-redraspberries. The fruit pulls away from itsreceptacle, differentiating it fromblackberries.[citation needed] Botanically speaking, the salmonberry is not a trueberry, but instead anaggregate fruit made of many smallerdrupelets.[9][12] The fruits of the salmonberry plant exhibitpolymorphism, as berries are often either red in color or a yellow-orange color. Studies have found that although both red and yellow-orange morphs have similar physical qualities, the red berries are more commonly consumed by birds, although this is likely not a strong enoughselective pressure to determine color morph distribution alone; factors such as soil type (which affects germination), along with other unstudied factors are more likely responsible for the color polymorphism.[13][14][15]
A similar species from Japan, the red-flowered raspberry (ベニバナイチゴ) was once considered asubspecies asR. spectabilis subsp.vernus. It is now reclassified asR. vernus.[16]
_at_Dutch_Harbor%2c_Alaska_USA.jpg)
Salmonberries are typically found in coastal areas withnitrogen-rich soils, in moist to wet forests and streambanks, increasing in abundance in areas of high rainfall and decreasing in abundance at higher elevations and continentality. Ecologically speaking, salmonberry tends to spread quickly and needs plenty of room to grow, and is often dominant and fast-growing in early-seral communities. Its size and population growth decline in abundance as the canopy begins to form, and may also be influenced by other factors such as basal area, plant disturbance, and population density.[9][17] In open areas they often form large thickets, and are found to associate with stands of red alder (Alnus rubra), lady fern (Athyrium filixfemina), western skunk cabbage (Lysichiton americanus), devil's club (Oplopanax horridus), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and threeleaf foamflower (Tiarella trifoliata).[9]
In the wild, the fruit are typically eaten by birds, bears, and small mammals, among others, while the leaves, twigs, and stems are grazed on by herbivores such as deer, moose, mountain goats, elk, and rabbits.[8][7] Populations of dense thicket growth can provide escape habitats for small animals, as well as nesting sites for birds.[7]
In the spring, salmonberry flowering coincides with the migration of certain species of hummingbirds, which is crucial for its pollination.[18] Birds and mammals also help with dispersion of seeds through their feces, while rodents and other burrowing animals may further help with dispersion. Some notable mammals crucial for the dispersion of seeds are the grizzly and American black bears, which can deposit 50,000 to 100,000 seeds in one pile of feces.[14]
Salmonberry have several traits that make it highly resistant to fire. Rhizomes and root crowns below the soil surface usually survive, even if top stems are burned. Depending on burial depth, seeds also often remain unharmed. Additionally, the plant tend to quickly sprout after fires, allowing for rapid growth and regeneration.[19]
Salmonberries are susceptible to many diseases, including mildew, fruit rot, rust, root rot, and viral and bacterial diseases. Their fruits, foliage, canes, roots, and crowns may also be damaged by pests such as beetles, aphids, mites, moths, among others.[20]
Salmonberries are edible plants.[21][13] The fruit has been referred to as "diverse, from bright, fruity and citrusy to deep and earthy with spicy notes"[22] and depending on ripeness and site, they are good eaten raw – whether red or golden[13] – and when processed into jam, candy, jelly and wine. Native American people ate the youngshoots or used it as a medicinal plant. The shoots were harvested during April to early June before they turned woody or tough, and were peeled, then steamed, boiled, orpit-cooked, and eaten (or less commonly, eaten raw).[7][23] Traditionally, the berries and sprouts were also eaten with salmon or mixed withoolichan grease or salmon roe. They were not dried because of their high moisture content.[7][24] It is still used as a food source and medicinal plant in regions of Alaska today.
Other uses by Native Americans include:[7]
It is also widely grown as anornamental plant for its flowers,[13][25][26] with a double-floweredclone identified inWashington andBritish Columbia.[27]R. spectabilis hasescaped cultivation and becomenaturalized in parts of northwesternEurope, includingGreat Britain,Ireland and theFaroe Islands.[28][29]
The salmonberry is important to multiple indigenous people of America in its native range. TheMakah people call the plantka'k'we'abupt and the berryka'k'we; theCowlitz people call the plante'twanac and the berrye'twan; speakers ofLower Chinook call ityunts.[30] TheSquamish people call the plantyetwánáy and the berriesyetwán, the shoots are calledstsá7tskaý (pronouncedsaskay).[31] In theSaanich dialect, it is calledelile.[32] The birdsong of theSwainson's thrush, sometimes known as the salmonberry bird, is aphenological indicator known to multiple indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast to be associated with the ripening of salmonberries. The birdsong itself is even said to make the berries ripen,[31] as is the case of theSaanich people who give the birdsong theonomatopoeic translation of "xwexwelexwelexwelexwesh!" meaning "ripen, ripen, ripen, ripen!" This belief is also widespread and is known to theTlingit,Haida,Haisla,Oweekeno,Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-Chah-Nulth,Ditidaht,Sḵwx̱wú7mesh, and theStraits Salish people. The presence ofElasmostethus cruciatus, called the salmonberry bug, is also seen as an indicator to Northwest Coast indigenous peoples that salmonberry shoots are ready to harvest.[33]
