Rosh Hashanah is atwo-day observance and celebration that begins on the first day ofTishrei, which is the seventh month of theecclesiastical year. The holiday itself follows a lunar calendar and begins the evening prior to the first day. In contrast to the ecclesiasticallunar new year on the first day of the first monthNisan, the springPassover month which marks Israel'sexodus from Egypt, Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the civil year, according to the teachings of Judaism, and is the traditional anniversary of the creation ofAdam and Eve, the first man and woman according to theHebrew Bible, as well as the initiation of humanity's role in God's world. TheSages in theTalmud[2] have characterized the day of Rosh Hashanah as the day that we so to speak crown God as king anew each year. This is effectuated through the Shofar blasts which symbolize the horns sounded at a coronation. It also initiates the Ten days of repentance making it an opportune time for repentance.[3][better source needed]
Rosh Hashanah customs include sounding theshofar (a hollowed-out ram's horn), as prescribed in theTorah, following the prescription of the Hebrew Bible to blast a [horn] on Yom Teruah. Eating symbolic foods that represent wishes for a sweet new year is an ancient custom recorded in the Talmud.[4][better source needed] Other rabbinical customs include attending synagogue services and reciting specialliturgy centering around three main themes: Crowning God as king, Shofar blasts, and God remembering us in judgement[5][better source needed], as well as enjoying festive meals. "Tashlich",[6] which means "to cast" is a ritual performed any time between the first day of Rosh Hashanah andHoshana Rabbah. Participants recite specific prayers by water, seeking divine forgiveness by symbolically shaking out their garments and casting away their sins into the depths of the waters.[7] In many communities, this is done by throwing stones or pieces of bread into the water.
Rosh is theHebrew word for "head",ha is the definite article ("the"), andshana means year. ThusRosh Hashanah means "head of the year", referring to the day of the New Year.[8][better source needed][9][better source needed]
The termRosh Hashanah in its current meaning does not appear in theTorah. Leviticus 23:24[10] refers to the festival of the first day of the seventh month aszikhron teru'ah ("a memorial of blowing [of horns]"). Numbers 29:1 calls the festivalyom teru'ah ("day of blowing [the horn]").[11]
The termrosh hashanah appears once in the Bible (Ezekiel 40:1),[12] where it has a different meaning: either generally the time of the "beginning of the year", or possibly a reference toYom Kippur,[13] or to the month ofNisan.[a][17]
The origin of the New Year is connected to the beginning of the economic year in the agricultural societies of theancient Near East.[18] The New Year was the beginning of the cycle of sowing, growth, and harvest; the harvest was marked by its own set of major agricultural festivals.[18] Semitic speakers generally set the beginning of the new year in autumn, while other ancient civilizations chose spring for that purpose, such as thePersians orGreeks or Hindus; the primary reason was agricultural in both cases, the time of sowing the seed and bringing in the harvest.[18]
Some scholars posit a connection between the Babylonian festivalAkitu and Rosh Hashanah, as there are some striking similarities. The Akitu festival of Ur was celebrated at the beginning of Nisanu (first month), which lasted at least five days, and again in Tashritu, the seventh month, which lasted eleven days.[19] Akitu was also strongly tied to the creation myth of Enuma Elish and the victory of Marduk over the sea monster Tiamat, and the creation of the universe from her corpse. Similarly, it is said that the world was created on Rosh Hashanah.[20]
Another view is that the birth of mankind, and by extension the anniversary of the worlds creation, along with its significance as a day of coronoation of God, was a tradition passed down from Adam and Eve who were created on that day. They passed it down through the generations until it was finally recorded in the Talmud.[21]
Rosh Hashanah marks the start of the numbering of a new year in the Hebrew calendar. According to theMishnah, four different New Years are observed: Rosh Hashanah (the first ofTishrei), the first ofNisan (whenthe Exodus began), the first ofElul, andTu BiShvat (the fifteenth ofShevat). Each delineates the beginning of a year for different legal or religious purposes. TheTalmudic distinctions among the New Years are discussed intractate Rosh Hashanah.[9] Rosh Hashanah is the new year for calculating ordinary calendar years,Sabbatical years,Jubilee years, and dates inscribed on legal deeds and contracts. Rosh Hashanah commemorates the creation of humankind.[22] In Jewish practice, the months are numbered starting with the spring month of Nisan, makingTishrei the seventh month; Rosh Hashanah, the first day of the new calendar year, is also actually the first day of theseventh month.[23]
The second of these "New Years", the first of the lunar monthNisan (usually corresponds to the months March–April in theGregorian calendar), is the beginning of the ecclesiastical year; the months are numbered beginning with Nisan. It marks the start of the year for theThree Pilgrimage Festivals.[24] Its injunction is expressly stated in the Hebrew Bible: "This month shall be unto youthe beginning of months" (Exodus 12:2). Their injunction is expressly stated in the Hebrew Bible: "Three times in the year you shall keep a feast unto me... the feast of unleavened bread (Passover)... the feast of harvest (Shavuot)... and the feast of ingathering (Sukkot) which isat the departing of the year" (Exodus 23:14–16).[25] "At the departing of the year" implies that the new year begins here according to the Babylonian Talmud. It is also when a new year is added to the reign of Jewish kings.
The third New Year, the first of Elul, the new year for animals, began the religious taxation period for tithing animals in biblical times. Elul corresponds to the Gregorian August/September, after the spring birthings, when counting the number of animals in herds was relatively simple. However, theHalakha follows the second opinion that the day coincides with Rosh Hashanah itself,[26] and therefore this third new year has no bearing inHalakha.
The fourth New Year, Tu Bishvat, the new year for trees, began the religious taxation period for tithing fruits and nuts from trees. Shevat corresponds to the Gregorian January/February, the end of theMediterranean wet season when most of the year's rainfall had occurred. Taking fruit or nuts from a tree younger than three years old, with the birthday counted as Tu Bishvat, was prohibited.
Rosh Hashanah is described in theMishnah as a day when "creatures pass before [God] like sheep" (Rosh Hashanah 1:2), receiving their judgment.[27] The Talmud expands on this, withtractate Rosh Hashanah 16a:6 noting thatRabbi Meir andRabbi Yehudah, bothTannaim from the second century CE during the Mishnaic period, agree that humanity is judged on Rosh Hashanah.[28] Furthermore, the Talmud, citing the opinion of Rabbi Kruspedai—who in turn attributes his opinion toRabbi Yochanan—in Rosh Hashanah 16b:12,[29] states that three books of judgment are opened on Rosh Hashanah. The books are inscribed with the fates of the individuals' names: one for the completely wicked, a second for the wholly righteous, and a third for those in an intermediate moral state, all judged by God. The names of the entirely righteous are immediately inscribed in thebook of the living (Biblical Hebrew:ספר החיים,romanized: Sefer HaḤayyim) and they are sealed "for life". The intermediate group is giventen days until Yom Kippur to reflect,repent, and become righteous; the wicked are "blotted out of the book of the living," teaches Rabbi Avin, referencingPsalm 69:29.[30][31]
Somemidrashic descriptions depictGod sitting upon a throne before open books containing the deeds of all humanity, with each person passing before God for evaluation of their deeds.[32] Rosh Hashanah, along with Yom Kippur, was identified as an anniversary holiday to "reflect on the past [...] only for the sake of the future" byChief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the CommonwealthEphraim Mirvis on 7 October 2024.[33] The general understanding of the holiday's religious significance is that it marks a period when members of the Jewish community canatone for their personalsins from the past year. This period begins ten days before Yom Kippur, which is dedicated to communal reflection and repentance.[34] This is reflected in theprayers composed by classicalrabbinic sages for Rosh Hashanah, which are included in contemporary traditional High Holy Daymachzorim (מַחְזוֹרִים,Hebrew pronunciation:[maχzoˈʁim];sing.machzor) The overarching theme of the prayers is the "coronation" ofGod as King of the universe, in preparation for the acceptance of judgments that will follow on that day. For instance, page 15 of theArtScroll machzor for Rosh Hashanah reads:
The Holy One said, "On Rosh Hashanah recite before Me [verses of] Sovereignty, Remembrance, and Shofar blasts (malchuyot, zichronot, shofarot): Sovereignty so that you should make Me your King; Remembrance so that your remembrance should rise up before Me. And through what? Through the Shofar" (Rosh Hashanah 16a, 34b).[35]
According toJewish mysticism, Rosh Hashanah is the day in which thelife-force of the world is renewed. It is the day that God so to speak decides if the world should continue to exist for another year. The Shofar's blows symbolize our plea to God to renew the lease on the world.[21]
Jewish elder blowing the ram's horn (shofar)Sequence of shofar sounds:tekiah, shevarim, teruah, tekiah
The best-known ritual of Rosh Hashanah is the blowing of the shofar, a musical instrument made from an animal horn. The shofar is blown at various points during the Rosh Hashanah prayers, and it is customary in most communities to have a total of 100 blasts on each day.[36][better source needed] The shofar is not blown onShabbat.[37]
While the blowing of the shofar is a Biblical statute, it is also a symbolic "wake-up call", stirring Jews to mend their ways and repent. The shofar blasts call out: "Sleepers, wake up from your slumber! Examine your ways and repent and remember your Creator."[38] The blowing of the shofar is also seen as a reminder to God of the plight of humanity.[39]
In modern timesthe Lubavitcher Rebbe made the Shofar blowing into the theme of a global campaign to encourage and facilitate the hearing of the Shofar in public areas and underserviced places such as prisons and hospitals.[40][better source needed]
On Rosh Hashanah day, religious poems calledpiyyutim are added to the regularservices. A special prayer book, themachzor (pluralmachzorim), is used on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.[41] Some additions are made to the regular service, most notably in the Ashkenazic rite (bothNusach Ashkenaz andNusach Sefard) an extended repetition of theAmidah prayer for bothShacharit andMussaf including piyyutim; even communities that omit most piyyutim throughout the year recite some selection of these piyyutim. In the contemporary Sephardic rite, no piyyutim are recited inside the repetition, and in the Italian rite very few are recited, but many Sephardic communities recite piyyutim before or after the Torah reading. The shofar is blown during Mussaf at the conclusion of each of the middle blessing of the Chazzan's repetition; in some communities, it is also blown during the silent Musaf.[42] (In many synagogues, even little children come and hear the shofar being blown.)[further explanation needed]. TheAleinu prayer is recited during the silent prayer as well as the repetition of the MussafAmidah.[43]
Among the most well-known and widely recited liturgical poems (piyyutim) in all Jewish communities isUnetaneh Tokef, traditionally recited around the Musaf prayer on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
The specialAvinu Malkeinu prayer is also recited on Rosh Hashanah. In the Ashkenazic rite, Avinu Malkeinu is never recited on Shabbat (except inNe'ila on Yom Kippur), and it is also omitted at Mincha on Fridays.
The narrative in the Book of Genesis describing the announcement of Isaac's birth and his subsequent birth[44] is part of the Torah readings in synagogues on the first day of Rosh Hashanah, and the narrative of the sacrifice andbinding of Isaac[45] is read in synagogue on the second day of Rosh Hashanah.
The Mussaf Amidah prayer on Rosh Hashanah is unique in that, apart from the first and last three blessings, it contains three central blessings making a total of nine. These blessings are entitled "Malchuyot" (Kingship, and also includes the blessing for the holiness of the day as in a normal Mussaf), "Zichronot" (Remembrance), and "Shofarot" (concerning the shofar). Each section contains an introductory paragraph followed by selections of verses about the "topic". The verses are three from theTorah, three from theKetuvim, three from theNevi'im, and one more from the Torah. During the repetition of the Amidah, the shofar is sounded (except on Shabbat) after the blessing that ends each section.[46] Recitation of these three blessings is first recorded in theMishna,[47] though writings byPhilo and possibly even Psalms 81[48] suggest that the blessings may have been recited on Rosh Hashanah even centuries earlier.[49]
In many Ashkenazic communities, primarily those from Germany or Hungary, akittel is worn during daytime Rosh Hashanah prayers, just as one is worn onYom Kippur. In other Ashkenazic communities, only the prayer leaders wear a kittel on Rosh Hashanah.
Rosh Hashanah is preceded by the month of Elul, during whichreligious Jews traditionally undergo a period of self-examination and repentance—a process that culminates in the ten days of theYamim Nora'im, beginning with Rosh Hashanah and ending with the holiday of Yom Kippur.[50][51]
The shofar is traditionally blown on weekday mornings—and in some communities in the afternoon, too—for the entire month of Elul. The sound of the shofar is intended to awaken the hearers from their "slumbers" and alert them to the coming days of judgment.[52][50] The shofar is not blown on Shabbat.[37]
Penitential prayers calledselichot are recited in the period leading up to Rosh Hashanah. The Sephardic tradition is to start at the beginning of Elul, while the Ashkenazic and Italian practice is to start a few days before Rosh Hashanah.[50]
The day before Rosh Hashanah is known asErev Rosh Hashanah (Rosh Hashanah eve).[53] It is the 29th day of the Hebrew month of Elul, ending at sundown, when Rosh Hashanah commences. Some communities performhatarat nedarim (a nullification of vows) after the morning prayer services.[54] Many Orthodox men immerse in amikveh to spiritually purify themselves ahead of Rosh Hashanah.[55]
Apples dipped in honey are eaten on Rosh Hashanah to symbolise the wish for a sweet and happy new year
Rosh Hashanah meals usually includeapples dipped in honey to symbolize a sweet start to the new year,[56][57] which was a medieval addition to the holiday's customs. Other foods with symbolic meanings may be served, depending on localminhagim ("customs"), such as the head of a fish to symbolize the prayer "let us be the head and not the tail", derived fromDeuteronomy 28:13.[58][59]
Many communities hold a "Rosh Hashanah seder" during which blessings are recited over a variety of symbolic dishes.[60][61] The blessings have theincipit "Yehi ratzon", meaning "May it be Thy will." In many cases, the name of the food in Hebrew or Aramaic represents a play on words (a pun). The Yehi Ratzon platter may include apples (dipped in honey, baked or cooked as a compote calledmansanada); dates; pomegranates; black-eyed peas; pumpkin-filled pastries calledrodanchas; leek fritters calledkeftedes de prasa; beets; and a whole fish with the head intact. It is also common amongSephardim to eat stuffed vegetables calledlegumbresyaprakes.[62]
Some of the symbolic foods eaten aredates,black-eyed peas,leeks,spinach, andgourd, all of which are mentioned in theTalmud:[63] "Let a man be accustomed to eat on New Year's Day gourds (קרא), and fenugreek (רוביא),[64] leeks (כרתי), beet [leaves] (סילקא), and dates (תמרי)."
Carrots can have multiple symbolic meanings at the Rosh Hashanah table. The Yiddish word for carrot is ma’rin (מערין), which also means "increase." By eating carrots, one asks for their merits and blessings to be increased. Sliced carrots are also typically eaten to symbolize gold coins and hopes for continued wealth and prosperity. In Hebrew, the word for carrot is gezer (גזר), which sounds similar to the word g’zar – the Hebrew word for "decree." Serving carrots on Rosh Hashanah symbolizes a desire to have God nullify any negative decrees.[65]
Pomegranates are used in many traditions[66] to symbolize being fruitful, like the pomegranate with its many seeds.[67] Typically, roundchallah bread is served,[68] to symbolize the cycle of the year. Raisins are occasionally incorporated into the dough to symbolize a sweet New Year.[67][57] From ancient to quite modern age, lamb head or fish head were served.[69] Nowadays,lekach (honey cake) andgefilte fish are commonly served by Ashkenazic Jews on this holiday. On the second night, new fruits are served to warrant the inclusion of theshehecheyanu blessing.[59]
The general Ashkenazic custom is eating sweet foods, such as honey cake andteiglach, to celebrate a sweet year. The Sephardic and Mizrahi custom is frequently to eat light-coloured foods, or rather, to avoid dark ones or a dark year.[citation needed]
The ritual oftashlikh is performed on the afternoon of the first day of Rosh Hashanah by most Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews (but not by Spanish and Portuguese Jews or some Yemenites, as well as those who follow the practices of theVilna Gaon). Prayers are recited near natural flowing water, and one's sins are symbolically cast into the water. Many also have the custom to throw bread or pebbles into the water, to symbolize the "casting off" of sins.
In some communities (primarily Ashkenazim), if the first day of Rosh Hashanah occurs on Shabbat,tashlikh is postponed until the second day. The traditional service fortashlikh is recited individually and includes the prayer "Who is like unto you, O God... And You will cast all their sins into the depths of the sea", and Biblical passages includingIsaiah 11:9 ("They will not injure nor destroy in all My holy mountain, for the earth shall be as full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea") andPsalms118:5–9,Psalms 121 andPsalms 130, as well as personal prayers. Though once considered a solemn individual tradition, it has become an increasingly social ceremony practiced in groups. Tashlikh can be performed any time untilHoshana Rabba, and someHasidic communities perform Tashlikh on the day beforeYom Kippur.[70][better source needed]
TheHebrew commongreeting on Rosh Hashanah isShanah Tovah (Hebrew:שנה טובה;pronounced[ˈʃonaˈtɔ͡ɪva] in many Ashkenazic communities andpronounced[ʃaˈnatoˈva] in Israeli and Sephardic communities), which translated from Hebrew means "[have a] good year".[71] OftenShanah Tovah Umetukah (Hebrew:שנה טובה ומתוקה), meaning "[have a] Good and Sweet Year", is used.[72] InYiddish the greeting is אַ גוט יאָר "a gut yor" ("a good year") or אַ גוט געבענטשט יאָר "a gut gebentsht yor" ("a good blessed year").[71] The formal Sephardic greeting isTizku Leshanim Rabbot ("may you merit many years"),[73] to which the answer isNe'imot VeTovot ("pleasant and good ones"); while inLadino, they say אנייאדה בואינה, דולסי אי אליגרי "anyada buena, dulse i alegre" ("may you have a good, sweet and happy New Year").[citation needed]
A more formal greeting commonly used among religiously observant Jews isKetivah VaChatimah Tovah (Hebrew:כְּתִיבָה וַחֲתִימָה טוֹבָה), which translates as "A good inscription and sealing [in the Book of Life]",[71] orL'shanah tovah tikatevu v'techatemu meaning "May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year".[72] In many German communities, the greetingL'shanah tovah tikatevu, "May you be inscribed for a good year" is used, leaving out the sealing.[74] After Rosh Hashanah ends, the greeting is changed toG'mar chatimah tovah (Hebrew:גמר חתימה טובה) meaning "A good final sealing", untilYom Kippur.[71] After Yom Kippur is over, untilHoshana Rabbah, asSukkot ends, the greeting isGmar Tov (Hebrew:גְּמָר טוֹב), "a good conclusion".[75]
Unlike the denominations of Rabbinical Judaism,Karaite Judaism believes the Jewish New Year starts with the first month and celebrates this holiday only as mentioned in the Torah, a day of rejoicing and shouting.[76] Karaites allow no work on the day except what is needed to prepare food (Leviticus 23:23, 24).[77]
The Torah defines Rosh Hashanah as a one-day celebration, and since days in the Hebrew calendar begin at sundown, the beginning of Rosh Hashanah is at sundown at the end of 29Elul. Since the time of the destruction of theSecond Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE and the time of RabbanYohanan ben Zakkai,normative Jewish law appears to be that Rosh Hashanah is to be celebrated for two days, because of the difficulty of determining the date of thenew moon.[13] Nonetheless, there is some evidence that Rosh Hashanah was celebrated on a single day in Israel as late as the thirteenth centuryCE.[79]
Orthodox andConservative Judaism now generally observe Rosh Hashanah for the first two days ofTishrei, even in Israel, where all other Jewish holidays are dated from the new moon and last only one day. The two days of Rosh Hashanah are said to constitute "Yoma Arichtah" (Aramaic: "one long day"), with certain practical implications in Halacha. InReform Judaism, while most congregations in North America observe only the first day of Rosh Hashanah, some follow the traditional two-day observance as a sign of solidarity with other Jews worldwide.[80]Karaite Jews, who do not recognize RabbinicJewish oral law and rely on their own understanding of the Torah, observe only one day on the first of Tishrei, since the second day is not mentioned in theWritten Torah.[81]
Originally, the date of Rosh Hashanah was determined based on observation of the new moon ("molad"), and thus could fall on any day of the week. However, around the third century CE, theHebrew calendar was fixed such that the first day of Rosh Hashanah never fell on Wednesday or Friday,[82] and by the ninth century it had been fixed so that it also could not fall out on Sunday (lo AD'U rosh).[83]
Rosh Hashanah occurs 163 days after the first day ofPassover, and thus is usually (but not always) determined by the new moon closest to theautumnal equinox.
Regarding theGregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Rosh Hashanah can fall is 5 September, as happened in 1842, 1861, 1899, and 2013. The latest Gregorian date that Rosh Hashanah can occur is 5 October, as happened in 1815, 1929, and 1967, and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew and Gregorian calendars will result in Rosh Hashanah falling no earlier than 6 September. Starting in 2214, the latest date will be 6 October.[84]
In 2020,Ukrainian presidentVolodymyr Zelenskyy, himself a Jew, announced that Ukraine would declare Rosh Hashanah a national holiday.[85] This makes Ukraine the only country besides Israel where the day is a national holiday.[citation needed]
^Exodus 12:2[14] refers to the month ofAviv (later renamed Nisan) as "the first month of the year", and in Ezekiel 45:18,[15] "the first month" unambiguously refers to Nisan, the month ofPassover, as made plain by Ezekiel 45:21.[16]
^"rosh hashanah".Origin and meaning of phrase rosh hashanah by Online Etymology Dictionary.Archived from the original on 29 September 2019. Retrieved29 September 2019.
^Mulder, Otto (2003).Simon the High Priest in Sirach 50: An Exegetical Study of the Significance of Simon the High Priest As Climax to the Praise of the Fathers in Ben Sira's Concept of the History of Israel. Brill. p. 170.ISBN978-9004123168.
^Chein, Rochel (27 August 2019)."High Holidays".Why is Rosh Hashanah considered the Jewish New Year?. Retrieved1 September 2019.
^This is not as strange as it may seem: as the names of the last four month of theGregorian calendar attest, January used to be the eleventh month, and the new calendar year began, in many places, in themiddle of March. In the United Kingdom, for example, Tuesday, 24 March 1750, was immediately followed by Wednesday, 25 March 1751. See theJulian Calendar#New Year's Day for details.
^Gold, Ave (1983).Rosh Hashanah – Its Significance, Laws, and Prayers: Presentation Anthologized from Talmudic Traditional Sources. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications. p. 101.ISBN978-0899061955.
^Hoenig, Sidney B. "Origins of the Rosh Hashanah Liturgy." The Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. 57, 1967, pp. 312–31.JSTOR1453499. Accessed 16 January 2020.
^Exploring Sephardic Customs and Traditions, Marc Angel, p. 49
^Debby Segura (18 September 2008)."The Rosh Hashanah Seder".Archived from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved10 September 2018.
^Sternberg, RobertThe Sephardic Kitchen: The Healthful Food and Rich Culture of the Mediterranean Jews, Harper Collins, 1996, pp. 320–21,ISBN0-06-017691-1
^Rashi (Keritot 6a) callsrubia by its Hebrew name "tiltan" (Heb. תלתן), which word he explains elsewhere as beingfenugreek. However, RabbiHai Gaon, in one of hisresponsum in "Otzar Ha-Geonim", seems to suggest that"rubia" (Heb. רוביא) means cowpeas, or what others call "black-eyed peas" (פול המצרי). RabbiHai Gaon's disciple, RabbiNissim ben Jacob (in his Commentary known asKetav Hamafteah), thus explains the word לוביא, in our case spelled רוביא, as meaning nothing other than cowpeas (פול המצרי), describing them as having a "dark eye in its center". Jews of North Africa traditionally make use of stringed beans in place ofrubia.
^abBottner, Lauren (21 September 2011)."From Selichot to Simchat Torah".Jewish Journal. TRIBE Media.Archived from the original on 10 September 2018. Retrieved10 September 2018.
^Greenspoon, Leonard Jay (2010).Rites of Passage: How Today's Jews Celebrate, Commemorate, and Commiserate. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. p. 144.ISBN978-1557535771.
Angel, Marc (2000).Exploring Sephardic Customs and Traditions. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV Pub. House in association with American Sephardi Federation, American Sephardi Federation – South Florida Chapter, Sephardic House.ISBN0-88125-675-7.
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