Arose is either a woodyperennialflowering plant of thegenusRosa (/ˈroʊzə/),[4] in the familyRosaceae (/roʊˈzeɪsiːˌiː/),[4] or theflower it bears. There are over three hundredspecies andtens of thousands ofcultivars.[5] They form a group ofplants that can be erectshrubs, climbing, or trailing, with stems that are often armed with sharpprickles.[6] Their flowers vary in size and shape and are usually large and showy, in colours ranging from white through pinks, reds, oranges and yellows. Most species are native toAsia, with smaller numbers native toEurope,North America, andNorthwest Africa.[6] Species,cultivars andhybrids are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Roses have acquired cultural significance in many societies. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses to climbers that can reach seven meters in height.[6] Different species hybridize easily, and this has been used in the development of the wide range ofgarden roses.
Theleaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species, they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long,pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (−13) leaflets and basalstipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses aredeciduous but a few (particularly fromSoutheast Asia) areevergreen or nearly so.
Thorns
The sharp growths along a rose stem, though commonly called "thorns", are technicallyprickles, outgrowths of theepidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem), unlike true thorns, which aremodified stems. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such asRosa rugosa andR. pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight prickles, probably an adaptation to reducebrowsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blownsand and so reduceerosion and protect theirroots (both of these species grow naturally oncoastalsand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed bydeer. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points.[citation needed]
Plant geneticist Zachary Lippman ofCold Spring Harbor Laboratory found that prickles are controlled by the LOG gene.[9][10] Blocking the LOG gene in roses reduced the thorns (large prickles) into tiny buds.
Rose thorns
Rose leaflets
Flower
Theflowers of most species have five petals, with the exception ofRosa omeiensis andRosa sericea, which usually have only four. Eachpetal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are fivesepals (or in the case of someRosa omeiensis andRosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The coloured petals are fused on the axis and arranged in five bundles forming a circle, the petal bundles expand further from each other;[11]: 458–459 the petals form a cup or disc surrounding thegynoecium.[11]: 453 There are multiplesuperior ovaries that develop intoachenes.[12]
Roses are insect-pollinated in nature. A fertilized ovary forms a berry-likeaggregate fruit called a "hip". The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g.Rosa pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, thehypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits calledachenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially thedog rose (Rosa canina) andrugosa rose (R. rugosa), are very rich invitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eatingbirds such asthrushes andwaxwings, which then disperse theseeds in their droppings.
Today's garden roses come from 18th-century China.[15] Among the old Chinese garden roses, the Old Blush group is the most primitive, while newer groups are the most diverse.[16]
Genome
A study of the patterns ofnatural selection in thegenome of roses indicated thatgenes related toDNA damage repair and stress adaptation have been positively selected, likely during their domestication.[17] This rapid evolution may reflect an adaptation to genome confliction resulting from frequent intra- and inter-species hybridization and switching environmental conditions of growth.[17]
Platyrhodon (from theGreek for "flaky rose", referring to flaky bark) with one species from east Asia,Rosa roxburghii (also known as the chestnut rose).
Rosa (thetype subgenus, sometimes incorrectly calledEurosa) containing all the other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections.
Banksianae – white and yellow flowered roses from China.
Bracteatae – three species, two from China and one from India.
Caninae – pink and white flowered species from Asia, Europe andNorth Africa.
Carolinae – white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all from North America.
Chinensis – white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-colour roses from China andBurma.
Gallicanae – pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from western Asia and Europe.
Gymnocarpae – one species in western North America (Rosa gymnocarpa), others in east Asia.
Laevigatae – a single white flowered species from China.
Pimpinellifoliae – white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses from Asia and Europe.
Rosa (syn. sect.Cinnamomeae) – white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red roses from everywhere but North Africa.
Synstylae – white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas.
Wild roses are host plants for a number of pests and diseases. Many of these affect other plants, including other genera of theRosaceae.
Cultivated roses are often subject to severe damage frominsect,arachnid andfungal pests and diseases. In many cases they cannot be usefully grown without regular treatment to control these problems.
Uses
Roses are best known asornamental plants grown for their flowers in thegarden and sometimes indoors. They have also been used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover and slope stabilization.
The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such asRosa glauca andR. rubiginosa), ornamental thorns (such asR. sericea) or for their showy fruit (such asR. moyesii).
Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC inMediterranean countries,Persia, and China.[20] It is estimated that 30 to 35 thousand rosehybrids andcultivars have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants.[21] Most aredouble-flowered with many or all of thestamens having morphed into additionalpetals.
In the early 19th century theEmpress Josephine of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens atMalmaison. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand differentcultivars, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted byLoddiges nursery forAbney Park Cemetery, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England.
Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercialcut flowers. Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale. The price of the roses depends partly on the characteristics of the rose itself, such as how long the stem is and how big the bloom is, and partly on factors about how it was grown, such as which country it was grown in.[22]
In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown ingreenhouses, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pest and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.[23]
Some kind of roses are artificially coloured using dyed water, likerainbow roses.
Rose perfumes are made fromrose oil (also called attar of roses), which is a mixture of volatileessential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product isrose water which is used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and religious practices. The production technique originated inPersia[24] and then spread throughArabia and India, and more recently intoeastern Europe. InBulgaria,Iran andGermany, damask roses (Rosa ×damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the worldRosa ×centifolia is commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.
The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrantalcoholsgeraniol and L-citronellol and rose camphor, an odorless solid composed ofalkanes, which separates from rose oil.[25] β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor to the scent.
Rose hips, usually fromR. canina, are high invitamin C, and are edible raw after the removal of the irritant hairs.[26][27] Hips can be made intojam,jelly,marmalade, andsoup, or brewed for tea. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to producerose hip seed oil, which is used in skin products and some makeup products.[28]Diarrhodon (Gr διάρροδον, "compound of roses", from ῥόδων, "of roses"[29]) is the historic name for various compounds in which red roses are an ingredient.
The flower stems and young shoots are edible, as are the petals (sans the white or green bases).[26] The latter are usually used as flavouring or to add their scent to food.[33] Other minor uses include candied rose petals.[34]
Rose creams (rose-flavouredfondant covered inchocolate, often topped with a crystallised rose petal) are a traditional English confectionery widely available from numerous producers in the UK.
Rosa hemisphaerica (syn.:R. sulphurea), watercolor by Pierre-Joseph Redouté (1759–1840)
The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol. Inancient Greece, the rose was closely associated with the goddessAphrodite.[37][38] In theIliad, Aphrodite protects the body ofHector using the "immortal oil of the rose"[39][37] and the archaic Greek lyric poetIbycus praises a beautiful youth saying that Aphrodite nursed him "among rose blossoms".[40][37] The second-century AD Greek travel writerPausanias associates the rose with the story ofAdonis and states that the rose is red because Aphrodite wounded herself on one of its thorns and stained the flower red with her blood.[41][37] Book Eleven of the ancient Roman novelThe Golden Ass byApuleius contains a scene in which the goddessIsis, who is identified withVenus, instructs the main character, Lucius, who has been transformed into adonkey, to eat rose petals from a crown of roses worn by a priest as part of a religious procession in order to regain his humanity.[38] French writerRené Rapin invented a myth in which a beautiful Corinthian queen namedRhodanthe ("she with rose flowers") was besieged inside a temple ofArtemis by three ardent suitors who wished to worship her as a goddess; the godApollo then transformed her into a rosebush.[42]
Following theChristianization of the Roman Empire, the rose became identified with theVirgin Mary. The colour of the rose and the number of roses received has symbolic representation.[43][44][38] The rose symbol eventually led to the creation of therosary and other devotional prayers in Christianity.[45][38] TheRose Cross incorporates the flower directly into the Christian cross, and is the namesake of the esoteric religious order ofRosicrucianism.
TheTudor rose combines the colours of the roses of York and Lancaster, and is an emblem of thenTudor dynasty and ofEngland.
Roses are a favored subject in art and appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg-bornBelgian artist and botanistPierre-Joseph Redouté is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses.
Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.
Other impressionists includingClaude Monet,Paul Cézanne andPierre-Auguste Renoir have paintings of roses among their works. In the 19th century, for example, artists associated the city ofTrieste with a certain rare white rose, and this rose developed as the city's symbol. It was not until 2021 that the rose, which was believed to be extinct, was rediscovered there.[46]
In 1986 PresidentRonald Reagan signed legislation to make the rose[47] the floral emblem of the United States.[48]
The rose is often exchanged onSt. Valentines Day and is used often as a symbol of such.[49]
The termbara (薔薇), "rose" in Japanese, has historically been used inJapan as apejorative formen who love men, roughly equivalent to the English language term "pansy".[50][51]: 40 Beginning in the 1960s, the term wasreappropriated by Japanese gay media: notably with the 1961 anthologyBa-ra-kei: Ordeal by Roses [ja], a collection of semi-nude photographs of homosexual writerYukio Mishima by photographerEikoh Hosoe,[51]: 34 and later withBarazoku (薔薇族; lit. "rose tribe") in 1971, the first commercially producedgay magazine inAsia.[52] The use of the rose as a prominent symbol of love between males is supposedly derived from theGreek myth ofKing Laius havingaffairs with boys under rose trees.[53] Since the 2000s,bara has been used by non-Japanese audience as an umbrella term to describe a wide variety of Japanese and non-Japanese gay media featuring love and sex betweenmasculine men.[54] The rose is also the sacred flower ofEros,[55] the Greek god of love and sex, and patron of love between men.[56] Eros was responsible for the first rose to sprout on Earth, followed by every flower and herb.[57] Roses are a symbol ofpederasty in ancient Greece:handsome boys were metaphorically called roses by theirmale admirers in homoerotic poems such as those bySolon,Straton,Meleager,Rhianus, andPhilostratos.[58]
As opposed to the red rose and its association with romantic affection, giving someone a yellow rose is symbolic of platonic love. Because of this, yellow roses have also become popular as symbols ofaromantic people.[59]
^Leus, Leen; Van Laere, Katrijn; De Riek, Jan; Van Huylenbroeck, Johan (2018)."Rose". In Van Huylenbroeck, Johan (ed.).Ornamental Crops. Handbook of Plant Breeding. Vol. 11. Springer. pp. 719–767 See p. 720.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90698-0_27.ISBN978-3-319-90697-3.
^Cucciniello, Lisa (2008). "Rose to Rosary: The Flower of Venus in Catholicism". In Hutton, Frankie (ed.).Rose Lore: Essays in Semiotics and Cultural History. Lexington Books. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-0-7391-3015-5.OCLC248733215.
^Conner, Randy P.; Sparks, David Hatfield; Sparks, Mariya (1998).Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit. UK: Cassell. p. 133.ISBN0-304-70423-7.
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