Romantic music is a stylistic movement inWestern Classical music associated with the period of the 19th century commonly referred to as theRomantic era (or Romantic period). It is closely related to the broader concept ofRomanticism—the intellectual, artistic, and literary movement that became prominent in Western culture from about 1798 until 1837.[1]
Romantic composers sought to create music that was individualistic, emotional, dramatic, and oftenprogrammatic; reflecting broader trends within the movements of Romanticliterature,poetry, art, and philosophy. Romantic music was often ostensibly inspired by (or else sought to evoke) non-musical stimuli, such as nature,[2] literature,[2] poetry,[2] super-natural elements, or the fine arts. It included features such as increasedchromaticism and moved away from traditional forms.[3]
The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe and strengthened in reaction to theIndustrial Revolution.[4] In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of theAge of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientificrationalization of nature.[5] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, literature,[6] and education,[7] and was in turn influenced by developments in natural history.[8]
One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in theMémoires by the FrenchmanAndré Grétry. It wasE. T. A. Hoffmann who established the principles of musical romanticism, in a lengthy review ofLudwig van Beethoven'sFifth Symphony published in 1810, and an 1813 article on Beethoven's instrumental music. In the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works ofHaydn andMozart.[9]
It was Hoffmann's fusion of ideas already associated with the term "Romantic", used in opposition to the restraint and formality of Classical models, that elevated music, and especially instrumental music, to a position of pre-eminence in Romanticism as the art most suited to the expression of emotions. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the center of musical Romanticism.[10]
The classical period often used short, even fragmentary, thematic material while the Romantic period tended to make greater use of longer, more fully defined and more emotionally evocative themes.[11]
Characteristics often attributed to Romanticism:
In music, there is a relatively clear dividing line in musical structure and form following the death of Beethoven. Whether one counts Beethoven as a "romantic" composer or not, the breadth and power of his work gave rise to a feeling that the classicalsonata form and, indeed, the structure of the symphony, sonata and string quartet had been exhausted.[16]
Events and changes in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events often affect music. For example, theIndustrial Revolution was in full effect by the late 18th century and early 19th century. This event profoundly affected music: there were major improvements in the mechanical valves and keys that most woodwinds and brass instruments depend on. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease and they were more reliable.[17]
Another development that affected music was the rise of the middle class.[2] Composers before this period lived under thepatronage of the aristocracy. Many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music.[17] The Romantic composers, on the other hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers, who had not necessarily had any music lessons.[17] Composers of the Romantic Era, likeElgar, showed the world that there should be "no segregation of musical tastes"[18] and that the "purpose was to write music that was to be heard".[19]
"The music composed by Romantic [composers]" reflected "the importance of the individual" by being composed in ways that were often less restrictive and more often focused on the composer's skills as a person than prior means of writing music.[2]
During the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose. Composers composed with a distinct sound that represented their home country and traditions. For example, Jean Sibelius'Finlandia has been interpreted to represent the rising nation of Finland, which would someday gain independence from Russian control.[20]
Frédéric Chopin was one of the first composers to incorporate nationalistic elements into his compositions. Joseph Machlis states, "Poland's struggle for freedom from tsarist rule aroused the national poet in Poland. ... Examples of musical nationalism abound in the output of the Romantic era. The folk idiom is prominent in the Mazurkas of Chopin".[21] His mazurkas and polonaises are particularly notable for their use of nationalistic rhythms. Moreover, "During World War II the Nazis forbade the playing of ... Chopin's Polonaises in Warsaw because of the powerful symbolism residing in these works".[21]
Other composers, such asBedřich Smetana, wrote pieces that musically described their homelands. In particular, Smetana'sVltava is asymphonic poem about theMoldau River in the modern-dayCzech Republic, the second in a cycle of six nationalistic symphonic poems collectively titledMá vlast (My Homeland).[22] Smetana also composed eight nationalist operas, all of which remain in the repertory. They established him as the first Czech nationalist composer as well as the most important Czech opera composer of the generation who came to prominence in the 1860s.[23]
The transition ofViennese classicism to Romanticism can be found in the work ofLudwig van Beethoven. Many typically romantic elements are encountered for the first time in his works. These works stand here in contrast tovocal music and are "purely" instrumental music. According to Hoffmann, the pureinstrumental music of Viennese classical music, especially that ofBeethoven, since it is free of material or program, is the embodiment of the romantic art idea.[24]
Another of the most important representatives of late classicism and early romanticism isFranz Schubert. He introduced romantic features into German-language opera, withhis chamber music works and latersymphonies. In this field, his work is supplemented by the ballads ofCarl Loewe.Carl Maria von Weber is important for the development of theGerman opera, especially with his popular Freischütz. There are fantastic-horrious materials byHeinrich Marschner and cheerful opera byAlbert Lortzing.Louis Spohr became known mainly for his instrumental music. Still largely attached to classical music is the work ofJohann Nepomuk Hummel,Ferdinand Ries, and the FrenchmanGeorge Onslow.
Italy experienced the heyday of theBelcanto opera in early Romanticism, associated with the names ofGioachino Rossini,Gaetano Donizetti, andVincenzo Bellini. While Rossini's comic operas are primarily known today, often only through their rousingovertures, Donizetti and Bellini predominate tragic content. The most important Italian instrumental composer of this time was the legendary "devil's violinist"Niccolò Paganini.
InFrance, light Opéra comique developed. Its representatives areFrançois-Adrien Boieldieu,Daniel-François-Esprit Auber, andAdolphe Adam, with Adam known for hisballets. The famous eccentric composer and harpistRobert Nicolas-Charles Bochsa wrote seven operas. The Grand opéra came up with pompous stage sets, ballets and large choirs. Her first representative wasGaspare Spontini, her most importantGiacomo Meyerbeer.
Other European countries are represented. The IrishmanJohn Field composed the firstNocturnes forpiano.Friedrich Kuhlau worked in Denmark. The SwedeFranz Berwald wrote four very idiosyncraticsymphonies.
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The high romanticism can be divided into two phases. In the first phase, the actual romantic music reaches its peak. The Polish composerFrédéric Chopin explored previously unknown depths of emotion in his character pieces and dances for piano.Robert Schumann, mentally immersed at the end of his life, represents in person as well as in music almost the prototype of the passionate romantic artist, shadowed by tragedy. His idiosyncratic piano pieces, chamber music works and symphonies should have a lasting influence on the following generation of musicians.
Franz Liszt, who came from the German minority in Hungary, was on the one hand a swarmed piano virtuoso, but on the other hand also laid the foundation for the progressive "New German School" with his harmoniously boldsymphonic poems. Also committed to program music was the technique of theidée fixe (leitmotif) of the FrenchmanHector Berlioz, who also significantly expanded the orchestra.Felix Mendelssohn was again more oriented towards the classicist formal language and became a role model especially forScandinavian composers such as the DaneNiels Wilhelm Gade.
In opera, the operas ofOtto Nicolai andFriedrich von Flotow still dominated in Germany whenRichard Wagner wrote his first romantic operas. The early works ofGiuseppe Verdi were also still based on the Belcanto ideal of the older generation. In France, theOpéra lyrique was developed byAmbroise Thomas andCharles Gounod.Russian music found its own language in the operas ofMikhail Glinka andAlexander Dargomyzhsky.
The second phase of high romanticism runs in parallel with the style of realism in literature and the visual arts. In the second half of his creation, Wagner now developed hisleitmotif technique, with which he holds together the four-partring of the Nibelungen, composed withoutarias; the orchestra is treated symphonically, the chromaticism reaches its extreme inTristan und Isolde. A whole crowd of disciples is under the influence of Wagner's progressive ideas, among them, for example,Peter Cornelius.
An opposition arose from numerous more conservative composers, to whomJohannes Brahms, who sought a logical continuation of classical music in symphony,chamber music and song, became a model of scale due to the depth of the sensation and a masterfulcomposition technique. Among others,Robert Volkmann,Friedrich Kiel,Carl Reinecke,Max Bruch,Josef Gabriel Rheinberger, andHermann Goetz are included in this party.
Some important loners came on the scene, among whomAnton Bruckner particularly stands out. Although a Wagner supporter, his clear-form style differs significantly from that of that composer. For example, the block-based instrumentation of Bruckner's symphonies is derived from the registers of the organ. In the ideological struggle against Wagner's adversaries, he was portrayed by his followers as a counterpart of Brahms.Felix Draeseke, who originally wrote "future music in classical form" starting from Liszt, also stands between the parties in composition.
Verdi also reached the way to a well-composedmusical drama, in a different way than Wagner. His immense charisma made all other composers fade in Italy, includingAmilcare Ponchielli andArrigo Boito, who was also the librettist of his late operas Otello and Falstaff. In France, the light muse triumphed first in the form of the socio-criticaloperettas ofJacques Offenbach. Lyrical opera found its climax in the works ofJules Massenet, while in the Carmen byGeorges Bizet, realism came for the first time.
Louis Théodore Gouvy built a stylistic bridge to German music. The operas, symphonies and chamber music works of the extremely versatileCamille Saint-Saëns were, as were the ballets ofLéo Delibes, more tradition-oriented. New orchestra colors were found in the compositions ofÉdouard Lalo andEmmanuel Chabrier. The Belgian-bornCésar Franck was accompanied by a revival of organ music, which was continued byCharles-Marie Widor, laterLouis Vierne andCharles Tournemire.
A specific national romanticism had by now emerged in almost all European countries. The national Russian current started by Glinka was continued in Russia by the "Group of Five":Mily Balakirev,Alexander Borodin,Modest Mussorgsky,Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, andCésar Cui. More western oriented wereAnton Rubinstein andPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, whoseballets and symphonies gained great popularity.Bedřich Smetana foundedCzech national music with his operas and the Symphony poems oriented towards Liszt.
The symphonies, concerts and chamber music works ofAntonín Dvořák have Brahms as a model. In Poland,Stanisław Moniuszko was the leading opera composer, in HungaryFerenc Erkel. Norway produced its best-known composers withEdvard Grieg, creator of lyrical piano works, songs and orchestral works such as the Peer-Gynt Suite; England's voice resonated with the Brahms-orientedHubert Parry and symphonist, as well as the comic operas ofArthur Sullivan.
In late Romanticism, also called post-Romanticism, the traditional forms and elements of music are further dissolved. An increasingly colorful orchestral palette, an ever-increasing range of musical means, the spread oftonality to its limits, exaggerated emotions and an increasingly individual tonal language of the individual composer are typical features; the music is led to the threshold ofmodernity.Thus, the symphonies ofGustav Mahler reached previously unknown dimensions, partly give up the traditional four-sentence and often contain vocal proportions.
Behind the monumental facade is the modern expressiveness of theFin de siècle. This psychological expressiveness is also contained in the songs ofHugo Wolf, miniature dramas for voice and piano. More committed to tradition, particularly oriented towards Bruckner, are the symphonies ofFranz Schmidt andRichard Wetz.Max Reger resorted to Bach's polyphony in his numerous instrumental works, but developed it harmoniously extremely boldly.
Among the numerous composers of the Reger successor,Julius Weismann andJoseph Haas stand out. Among the outstanding late romantic sound creators is the idiosyncraticHans Pfitzner. Although a traditionalist and decisive opponent of modern currents, quite a few of his works are close to the musical progress of the time. His successor includeWalter Braunfels, who mainly emerged as an opera composer, and the symphonistWilhelm Furtwängler.
The opera stage was particularly suitable for increased emotions. The folk and fairy tale operas ofEngelbert Humperdinck,Wilhelm Kienzl andSiegfried Wagner, the son of Richard Wagner, were still quite good.Eugen d'Albert andMax von Schillings irritated the nerves with a German variant of verism.
Erotic symbolism can be found in the stage works ofAlexander von Zemlinsky andFranz Schreker.Richard Strauss went even further to the limits of tonality withSalome andElektra before he took more traditional paths withDer Rosenkavalier. In the style related to the works of Strauss, the compositions ofEmil von Reznicek andPaul Graener are shown.
In Italy, opera still dominated the era. This is where verism developed, an exaggerated realism that could easily turn into the striking and melodramatic on the opera stage. Despite their extensive work,Ruggero Leoncavallo,Pietro Mascagni,Francesco Cilea, andUmberto Giordano have only become known through one opera at a time. OnlyGiacomo Puccini's work has been completely preserved in the repertoire of the opera houses, although he was also often accused of sentimentality.
Despite some veristic works,Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari was mainly considered a revival of the Opera buffa.Ferruccio Busoni, a temporarily defender of modern classicity living in Germany, left behind a rather conventional, little played work. Thus, instrumental music found its place in Italian music again withOttorino Respighi, who was influenced by Impressionism.
The termImpressionism comes from painting, and like there, it also developed in music in France. In the works ofClaude Debussy, the structures dissolved into the finest nuances of rhythm, dynamics and timbre. This development was prepared in the work ofVincent d'Indy,Ernest Chausson and above all in the songs and chamber music ofGabriel Fauré. All subsequent French composers were more or less influenced by Impressionism. The most important among them wasMaurice Ravel, a brilliant orchestral virtuoso.
Albert Roussel first processed exotic topics before he anticipatedNeoclassical tendencies like Ravel.Gabriel Pierné,Paul Dukas,Charles Koechlin, andFlorent Schmitt also dealt with symbolic and exotic-oriental substances. The lonerErik Satie was the creator of spun piano pieces and idol of the next generation. Nevertheless, Impressionism is often attributed to the epoch of modernity, if not seen as its own epoch.Hubert Parry and the IrishmanCharles Villiers Stanford initiated late Romanticism in England, which had its first important representative inEdward Elgar. While he revived the oratorio and wrote symphonies and concerts,Frederick Delius devoted himself to particularly small orchestral images with his own variant of Impressionism.
Ethel Smyth wrote mainly operas and chamber music in a style that reminded Brahms.Ralph Vaughan Williams, whose works were inspired byEnglish folk songs andRenaissance music, became the most important symphonist of his country.Gustav Holst incorporated Greek mythology and Indian philosophy into his work. Very idiosyncratic composer personalities in the transition to modernity were alsoHavergal Brian andFrank Bridge.
In Russia,Alexander Glazunov decorated his traditional composition technique with a colorful orchestral palette. The mysticAlexander Scriabin dreamed of a synthesis of colors, sound and scents.Sergei Rachmaninov wrote melancholic-pathetic piano pieces and concertos full of intoxicating virtuosity, while the piano works ofNikolai Medtner are more lyrical.
In the Czech Republic,Leoš Janáček, deeply rooted in the music of hisMoravian homeland, found new areas of expression with the development of the language melody in his operas. The local sounds are also unmistakable in the music ofZdeněk Fibich,Josef Bohuslav Foerster,Vítězslav Novák, andJosef Suk. There is a slightly morbid exoticism and later classicist measure in the work of the PolishKarol Szymanowski.
The most important Danish composer isCarl Nielsen, known for symphonies and concerts. Even more dominant in his country is the position of the FinnJean Sibelius, also a symphonist of melancholy expressiveness and clear line design. In Sweden, the works ofWilhelm Peterson-Berger,Wilhelm Stenhammar, andHugo Alfvén show a typical Nordic conservatism, and the NorwegianChristian Sinding also composed traditionally.
Spanish music increased in popularity again after a long time, first in the piano works ofIsaac Albéniz andEnrique Granados, then in the operas, ballets and orchestral works ofManuel de Falla, influenced by Impressionism.
The first important representatives of the United States also appeared withEdward MacDowell andAmy Beach. The work ofCharles Ives belonged only partly to late Romanticism - much of it was already radically modern and pointed far into the 20th century.
The New German School was a loose collection of composers and critics informally led byFranz Liszt andRichard Wagner who strove for pushing the limits ofchromatic harmony andprogram music as opposed toabsolute music which they believed had reached its limit underLudwig van Beethoven.[25]
This group also pushed for the development and innovation of thesymphonic poem,thematic transformation inmusical form, and radical changes intonality andharmony.[26]
Other important members of this movement includes the criticRichard Pohl and composersFelix Draeseke,Julius Reubke,Karl Klindworth,William Mason, andPeter Cornelius.
The conservatives were a broad group of musicians and critics who maintained the artistic legacy ofRobert Schumann who adhered to composing and promotingabsolute music.[27]
They believed in continuing along the footsteps ofLudwig van Beethoven of composing thesymphony genre in the classical mold, though they would implement their own musical language.[28]
The most prominent members of this circle wereJohannes Brahms,Joseph Joachim,Clara Schumann, and theLeipzig Conservatoire, which had been founded byFelix Mendelssohn.
The Mighty Five were a group of Russian composers centered inSaint Petersburg who collaborated with each other from 1856 to 1870 to create a distinctlyRussian national style of classical music. They were often at odds withPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky who favored a more Western approach to classical composition.
Led byMily Balakirev the group's main members also consisted ofCésar Cui,Modest Mussorgsky,Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov andAlexander Borodin.
The Belyayev circle was a society of Russian musicians who met inSaint Petersburg from 1885 and 1908 who sought to continue the development of the nationalRussian style of classical music following in the footsteps of the Mighty Five although they were far more tolerant of the Western compositional style ofTchaikovsky.
This group was founded by Russian music publisher philanthropistMitrofan Belyayev. The two most important composers of this group wereNikolai Rimsky-Korsakov andAlexander Glazunov. Members also includedVladimir Stasov,Anatoly Lyadov,Alexander Ossovsky,Witold Maliszewski,Nikolai Tcherepnin,Nikolay Sokolov, andAlexander Winkler.
During the later half of the 19th Century, some prominent composers began exploring the limits of the traditional tonal system. Important examples includeTristan und Isolde[29] byRichard Wagner andBagatelle sans tonalité[30] byFranz Liszt. This limit was finally reached during the Late Romantic period whereprogressive tonality is demonstrated in the works of composers such asGustav Mahler,[31] and the early works ofArnold Schoenberg[32] andAnton Webern.[33] With these developments, Romanticism finally began to break apart into several new parallel movements forming in response, bringing way toModernism.
Some notable movements to form in response to Romanticism's collapse includeExpressionism withArnold Schoenberg and theSecond Viennese School being its main promoters andPrimitivism withIgor Stravinsky being its most influential composer.
Carried to the highest degree byLudwig van Beethoven, the symphony becomes the most prestigious form to which many composers devote themselves. The most conservative respect to the Beethovenian model includes composers such asFranz Schubert,Felix Mendelssohn,Robert Schumann,Camille Saint-Saëns, andJohannes Brahms. Others show an imagination that makes them go beyond this framework, in form or in the spirit: the most daring of them beingHector Berlioz.
Finally, some will also tell a story throughout their symphonies; likeFranz Liszt, they will create thesymphonic poem, a new musical genre, usually composed of a single movement and inspired by a theme, character or literary text. Since the symphonic poem is articulated around aleitmotiv (musical motif to identify a character, the hero for example), it is to be compared to music with a symphonic program.
This musical genre appeared with the evolution frompianoforte topiano during the romantic period. Thelied is vocal music most often accompanied by this instrument. The singing is taken from romantic poems and this style makes it possible to bring the voice as close to feelings as possible. One of the first and most famous lieder composers isFranz Schubert, withErlkönig, however, many other romantic composers have devoted themselves to the lied genre such asSaint-Saëns,Duparc,Robert Schumann,Johannes Brahms,Hugo Wolf,Gustav Mahler, andRichard Strauss.
It isBeethoven who inaugurates the romantic concerto, with his five piano concertos (especially thefifth) and hisviolin concerto where many characteristics ofclassicism can still be recognized. His example is followed by many composers: the concerto rivals the symphony in the repertoire of majororchestral formations.
Finally, the concerto will allow instrumentalist composers to reveal their virtuosity, such asNiccolò Paganini on the violin, andFrédéric Chopin,Robert Schumann, andFranz Liszt on the piano.
A rhapsody in music is a one-movement work that is episodic yet integrated, free-flowing in structure, featuring a range of highly contrasted moods, colour, and tonality. An air of spontaneous inspiration and a sense of improvisation make it freer in form than a set of variations.
Thenocturne is presented as a short-lived confidential piece, which the Irish composerJohn Field was one of the first to cultivate. Immersed in the climate of the night, an atmosphere privileged by romantics, it is often of ABA structure, with a very flexible and ornatemelody, accompanied by a left hand with undulatingarpeggios. Thetempo is usually slow, and the central part is often more agitated.
Frédéric Chopin has set the most famous form of the nocturnes. He wrote 21, from 1827 to 1846. First published in series of three (opus 9 and 15), they are then grouped in pairs (opus 27, 32, 37, 48, 55, 62).
TheRomantic ballet was developed throughout the 19th century, especially by composers such asPyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in Russia andLéo Delibes in France.
During the 19th century, romanticism took a hold of opera and it wasParis that became one of its main centers. Most romantic operas were composed by composers living in France, such asLuigi Cherubini,Gaspare Spontini,François-Adrien Boieldieu, andDaniel-François-Esprit Auber. The apogee of the style of great operas is marked by the works ofGiacomo Meyerbeer.Hector Berlioz'sLes Troyens was first ignored,Benvenuto Cellini is consputed during the premiere, whileCharles Gounod'sFaust is one of the most popular French operas of the mid-19th century.
During the second part of the 19th century,Georges Bizet will revolutionize opera with Carmen: "local color based on the use of Spanish songs and dances" according to Nietzsche, it is "a ray of Mediterranean light dissipating the fog of the Wagnerian ideal". Interest in "local color" works is confirmed withLakmé byLéo Delibes, andSamson and Dalila byCamille Saint-Saëns. The most productive French composer of operas of the last part of the century wasJules Massenet composing works such asManon,Werther, andThaïs.
Jacques Offenbach, who composedLes Contes d'Hoffmann, established himself as the master of French opera-comique of the 19th century, inventing a new genre, the French opéra bouffe, which later was confused with the operetta.
At the beginning of the 20th century, romanticism in France was gradually abandoned in favor of other currents such asImpressionism orsymbolism, carried in particular byClaude Debussy'sPelléas and Mélisande (1902).
Carl Maria von Weber, withDer Freischütz (1821) creates the first German romantic opera; the first important opera beingBeethoven'sFidelio (1805), the only operatic work of this composer.
Richard Wagner, from theDer fliegende Holländer, introduces theleitmotiv and the "cyclical melody" process. He revolutionizes opera by duration and instrumental power. His major work,Tetralogy is one of the summits of German opera. He creates the "musical drama" in which the orchestra now becomes the protagonist in the same way as the characters. In 1876, theBayreuth Festival was created dedicated to the exclusive representation of Wagner's works.
Wagner's influence continues in virtually all operas, even inHänsel und Gretel byEngelbert Humperdinck. The dominant figure is thenRichard Strauss, who uses orchestration and vocal techniques similar to those of Wagner inSalome andElektra while developing his own path.Der Rosenkavalier is the work of Strauss that had the most flamboyant success at the time.
Italian romanticism begins withGioachino Rossini who composed works such asThe Barber of Seville andLa Cenerentola. He created the "bel canto" style, a style adopted by his contemporariesVincenzo Bellini andGaetano Donizetti.
However, the face of Italian opera isGiuseppe Verdi whoseNabucco's slave choir is a very important hymn to all of Italy. The trilogy formed byRigoletto,Il trovatore andLa traviata are among his major works but he reaches the peak of his art withOtello andFalstaff at the end of his career. He has infuled his works with unparalleled dramatic vigour and rhythmic vitality.
In the second part of the 19th century,Giacomo Puccini, Verdi's undisputed successor, transcendsrealism intoverism.La Bohème,Tosca,Madame Butterfly, andTurandot are melodic operas loaded with emotion.
Other works of national inspiration:
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