For around 450years, from around 55 BC to around 410 AD, the southern part of theNetherlands was integrated into theRoman Empire. During this time the Romans in the Netherlands had an enormous influence on the lives andculture of thepeople who lived in the Netherlands at the time and (indirectly) on the generations that followed.^[1]

During theGallic Wars, the area south and west of theRhine was conquered by Roman forces underJulius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC.^[2] The approximately 450 years ofRoman rule that followed would profoundly change the Netherlands.

Starting about 15 BC, the Rhine in the Netherlands came to be defended by the LowerLimes Germanicus. After a series of military actions, the Rhine became fixed around 12 AD as Rome's northern frontier on the European mainland.^{[citation needed]} A number of towns and developments would arise along this line. Perhaps the most evocative Roman ruin is the mysteriousBrittenburg, which emerged from the sand at the beach in Katwijk several centuries ago, only to be buried again. These ruins were part ofLugdunum Batavorum.

The area to the south would be integrated into theRoman Empire. At first part ofGallia Belgica, this area became part of theprovince ofGermania Inferior. The tribes already within, or relocated to, this area became part of the Roman Empire.

The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by theFrisii and theChauci, remained outside Roman rule but not its presence and control. The Frisii were initially "won over" byDrusus, suggesting a Romansuzerainty was imposed byAugustus on the coastal areas north of the Rhine river.^[3] Over the course of time the Frisii would provide Roman auxiliaries through treaty obligations, but the tribe would also fight the Romans in concert with other Germanic tribes (finally, in 296 the Frisii were relocated in Flanders and disappeared from recorded history).^[4]

During theGallic Wars, theBelgic area south of theOude Rijn and west of theRhine was conquered by Roman forces underJulius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC.^[5] He established the principle that the Rhine, which runs through the Netherlands, defined a natural boundary between theGauls andGermanic peoples. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes were "Germani cisrhenani", or in other cases, of mixed origin. The approximately 450 years ofRoman rule that followed would profoundly change the area that would become the Netherlands. Very often this involved large-scale conflict with the "free Germans" over the Rhine.

When Caesar arrived, various tribes were located in the area of the Netherlands, residing in the inhabitable higher parts, especially in the east and south. These illiterate tribes did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them.Julius Caesar himself, in his commentaryCommentarii de Bello Gallico wrote in detail only about the southern area which he conquered. Two or three tribes who he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were:

• TheMenapii, a Belgic tribe who stretched from the Flemish coast, through the south of the river deltas, and as far as the modern German border. In terms of modern Dutch provinces this means at least the south of Zeeland, at least the north of North Brabant, at least the southeast of Gelderland, and possible the south of South Holland. In later Roman times this territory seems to have been divided or reduced, so that it became mainly contained in what is now western Belgium.
• TheEburones, the largest of theGermani Cisrhenani group, whose territory covered a large area between the riversMaas and Rhine, and also apparently stretched close to the delta, giving them a border with the Menapii. Their territory may have stretched into Gelderland. Caesar claimed to have destroyed the name of the Eburones, but in Roman times Tacitus reports that the Germani Cisrhenani had taken up a new name, theTungri. While exact borders are not known the territory of the Eburones, and later the Tungri, (the "Civitas Tungrorum") included all or most of the modern provinces of Dutch Limburg, and North Brabant. The part in North Brabant was apparently within what became known asToxandria, the home of the Texuandri.
• TheAmbivariti were apparently a smaller tribe, perhaps part of the Eburones, or Menapii, who Caesar mentions in passing as living west of the Maas, and therefore somewhere in or near North Brabant. (It is possible they lived in what is now Belgium.)

In the delta itself, Caesar makes a passing comment about theInsula Batavorum ("Island of the Batavi") in the Rhine river, without discussing who lived there. Later, in imperial times, a tribe called the Batavi became very important in this region. The island's easternmost point is at a split in the Rhine, one arm being theWaal the other theLower Rhine/Old Rhine (hence the Latin name^[6] Much laterTacitus wrote that they had originally been a tribe of theChatti, a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar.^[7] However, archaeologists find evidence of continuity, and suggest that the Chattic group may have been a small group, moving into a pre-existing (and possibly non-Germanic) people, who could even have been part of a known group such as the Eburones.^[8]

Tribes named by Julius Caesar	Tribes during Roman empire

Other tribes who eventually inhabited the "Gaulish" islands in the delta during Roman times are mentioned byPliny the Elder:^[9]

• TheCananefates, whom Tacitus says were similar to the Batavians in their ancestry (and so presumably came from Germany). These lived to the west of the Batavi, sharing the same island, in what is today the province of South Holland.
• TheFrisii, who also inhabited the Netherlands north of the delta, and thus covered a major part of the modern Netherlands, not only in modern Friesland, but also in North Holland and at least in parts of all the other northern Dutch provinces today.
• TheChauci, whose main territory was the north sea coast of Germany, bordering the Frisii on their east. They are thought to be ancestors of the laterSaxons, and apparently only held a small part of the modern Netherlands in Roman times.
• TheFrisiabones, who Pliny also counted as a people living inGallia Belgica, to the south of the delta. They probably therefore lived in the north of North Brabant, perhaps stretching into Gelderland and South Holland.
• TheMarsacii, who Tacitus refers to as neighbours of the Batavi. Pliny also apparently mentioned these as stretching on to the Flemish coast, and they probably inhabited what is today the province of Zeeland.
• TheSturii, who are not known from any other sources, but are thought to have lived near the Marsacii, therefore in modern Zeeland or South Holland.

As mentioned above, the northern Netherlands, above the Old Rhine, was dominated by the Frisii, with perhaps a small penetration of Chauci. While this area was not officially part of the empire for any long periods, military conscription and other impositions were made for long periods upon the Frisii. Several smaller tribes are known from the eastern Netherlands, north of the Rhine:

• TheTuihanti (or Tubantes) fromTwente in Overijssel, had units serving in the Roman army in Britain.
• TheChamavi, fromHamaland in northern Gelderland, aFrankish tribe that often fought against Rome.
• TheSalians, also Franks, probably originated inSalland in Overijssel, before they moved into the empire, forced by Saxons in the 4th century, first into Batavia, and then into Toxandria.
• South of the Chamavi and on the Rhine the Usipetes lived for some time. Caesar reported that them already in his time as newcomers from the east. Eventually they appear to have been forced southeast under pressure from the Frankish Chamavi andChatuarii.

In the south of the Netherlands theTexuandri inhabited most of North Brabant. The modern province of Limburg, with the Maas running through it, appears to have been inhabited by (from north to south) theBaetasii, theCatualini, theSunuci and theTungri.

About 38 BC, a pro-Roman faction of theChatti (a Germanic tribe located east of theRhine) was settled byAgrippa in an area south of the Rhine, now thought to be theBetuwe area. They took on the name of the people already living there—theBatavians.^[2]

The relationship with the original inhabitants was on the whole quite good; manyBatavians andCananefates even served in theRoman cavalry. Batavian culture was influenced by the Roman one, resulting among other things in Roman-style temples such as the one inElst, dedicated to local gods. Trade also flourished: the salt used in the Roman empire was won from the North Sea and remains are found across the whole Roman empire.

However, this did not prevent theBatavian rebellion of 69 AD, a very successfulrevolt under the leadership of BatavianGaius Julius Civilis. Fortycastella were burnt down because the Romans violated the rights of the Batavian leaders by taking young Batavians as theirslaves.^[10]

Other Roman soldiers (like those inXanten and the auxiliary troops of Batavians and Cananefates from the legions ofVitellius) joined the revolt, which split the northern part of theRoman army. In April 70,Vespasianus sent a few legions to stop the revolt. Their commander,Petilius Cerialis, eventually defeated the Batavians and started negotiations withJulius Civilis on his home ground, somewhere between theWaal and theMaas near Noviomagus (Nijmegen) or—as the Batavians probably called it—Batavodurum.^[11]

The Batavi may have merged into the Salian Frankish community, who first appear in the written record in the third century as a group who had been living in Batavia before being pushed southwards out of the delta.^[12]

During their stay in Germania Inferior, the Romans established a number of towns and smaller settlements in the Netherlands and reinforced theLimes Germanicus with military forts. More notable towns includeUlpia Noviomagus Batavorum (modernNijmegen) andForum Hadriani (Voorburg).

1. Flevum (at modernVelsen) A harbour has been found here as well. (Disputed)
2. Lugdunum Batavorum (Brittenburg at modernKatwijk aan Zee)
3. Praetorium Agrippinae (at modernValkenburg)
4. Matilo (in the modern Roomburg area ofLeiden)
5. Albaniana (at modernAlphen aan den Rijn)
6. Fort of an unknown name (nearBodegraven)
7. Laurium (at modernWoerden)
8. A fort perhaps calledFletio (at modernVleuten)
9. Traiectum (in modernUtrecht)
10. Fectio (Vechten)
11. Levefanum (at modernWijk bij Duurstede)
12. Carvo (at modern Kesteren inNeder-Betuwe)
13. Fort of an unknown name at (Meinerswijk)
14. Noviomagus (in modern (Nijmegen)

A)Forum Hadriani, a.k.a. Aellium Cananefatum (modernVoorburg)
B)Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum, a.k.a. Colonia Ulpia Noviomagus, (modernNijmegen)
C)Batavorum (in modernNijmegen)
D)Colonia Ulpia Trajana (in modernXanten, Germany)
E)Coriovallum (in modernHeerlen)

F)Nigrum Pullum (modernZwammerdam)
G) settlement of an unknown name on theLeidsche Rijn
H) Haltna (modernHouten)
I) settlement of an unknown name (modernErmelo)
J) settlement of an unknown name (modernTiel)
K) Roman temples (modernElst, Overbetuwe)
L) Temple possibly devoted toHercules Magusannus (modernKessel, North Brabant)
M) Temple (at an area called "De lithse Ham" near Maren-Kessel, now part ofOss)^[13]
N)Ceuclum (modernCuijk)
O) Roman era tombs 2 km south of town center (modernEsch)
P)Trajectum ad Mosam, also known as Mosae Trajectum, (modernMaastricht)
Not marked on the map: a possible fort in modernVenlo and a settlement calledCatualium^[14] near modernRoermond

In the 3rd century theFranks, a warrior Germanic tribe, started to appear in the Netherlands. Their attacks happened in a time period with a catastrophic sea invasion of the area.

Another change was irreversible. During transgression phases, the sea is more aggressive than under normal circumstances. The third century saw the beginning of an era of increased violence from the sea. The canal between Lake Flevo and the Wadden Sea widened and the mud-flats of the north become wetlands. The Frisians and Chauci increased the height of the terps (the mounds on the alluvial plain on which they lived) but in vain. It seems that their country was largely depopulated, and the Frisians disappear from our sources. (It is unlikely that the inhabitants of modern Friesland are related to the ancient Frisians.).....The cause of this devastation (in Frisian lands) is easy to find: raids of a new Germanic tribe, the Franks.^[15]

Modern scholars of theMigration Period are in agreement that the Frankish identity emerged at the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smallerGermanic groups, including theSalii,Sicambri,Chamavi,Bructeri,Chatti,Chattuarii,Ampsivarii,Tencteri,Ubii,Batavi and theTungri, who inhabited the lower and middle Rhine valley between theZuyderzee and the riverLahn and extended eastwards as far as theWeser, but were the most densely settled around theIJssel and between theLippe and theSieg. The Frankish confederation probably began to coalesce in the 210s.^[16]

The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: theRipuarian Franks (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and theSalians, who probably originated in theSalland in Overijssel, before pressure from the Saxons then forced them to move into the empire in the 4th century and became theSalian Franks.

Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies (laeti ordediticii). In 288 the emperorMaximian defeated theSalian Franks,Chamavi,Frisians and other Germans living along the Rhine and moved them toGermania inferior to provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes.^[17][18] In 292Constantius defeated the Franks who had settled at the mouth of the Rhine. These were moved to the nearby region ofToxandria.^[19]

They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. Around 310, the Franks had the region of theScheldt river (present day west Flanders and southwest Netherlands) under control, and were raiding theChannel, disrupting transportation toBritain. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates along the shores at least until the time ofJulian the Apostate (358), when Salian Franks were granted to settle asfoederati inToxandria, according to Ammianus Marcellinus.^[20]

At the beginning of the 5th century, the Franks became the most important ethnic group in the region, just before the end of theWestern Roman Empire.

• History of the Netherlands

• Howorth, Henry H. (1884)."XVII. The Ethnology of Germany (Part VI). The Varini, Varangians and Franks. Section II".Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute.13. Trübner & Co.:213–239.doi:10.2307/2841727.JSTOR 2841727.
• Bernard Colebrander, MUST (edd.),Limes Atlas, (Uitgeverij 010, 2005 Rotterdam)
• Veen, Christel (2023).Roman period statuettes in the Netherlands and beyond: representation and ritual use in context. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.ISBN 9789463729383.
• Excerpta Romana. De bronnen der Romeinse Geschiedenis van Nederland

• Germania inferiorArchived 2017-05-08 at theWayback Machine
• Fectio FortArchived 2015-03-27 at theWayback Machine

• Netherlands in the Roman era
• Roman frontiers
• Roman fortifications in Germania Inferior

• Webarchive template wayback links
• CS1 errors: ISBN date
• Articles with short description
• Short description with empty Wikidata description
• Articles with excerpts
• All articles with unsourced statements
• Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023
• Articles containing Dutch-language text