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| Romanian alphabet | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Script type | |
Period | 1860s – present |
| Languages | Romanian |
| Related scripts | |
Parent systems | |
| Unicode | |
| subset ofLatin (U+0000...U+024F) | |
| This article containsphonetic transcriptions in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. For the distinction between[ ],/ / and ⟨ ⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. | |
TheRomanian alphabet is a variant of theLatin alphabet used for writing theRomanian language. It consists of 31 letters,[1][2] five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language.
| Letter | Name |
|---|---|
| Aa | a |
| Ăă | ă |
| Ââ | î din a |
| Bb | be / bî |
| Cc | ce / cî |
| Dd | de / dî |
| Ee | e |
| Ff | ef / fe / fî |
| Gg | ge / ghe / gî |
| Hh | haș / ha / hî |
| Ii | i |
| Îî | î din i |
| Jj | je / jî |
| Kk | ca / capa |
| Ll | el / le / lî |
| Mm | em / me / mî |
| Nn | en / ne / nî |
| Oo | o |
| Pp | pe / pî |
| chiu (/ky/) | |
| Rr | er / re / rî |
| Ss | es / se / sî |
| Șș | șe / șî |
| Tt | te / tî |
| Țț | țe / țî |
| Uu | u |
| Vv | ve / vî |
| Ww | dublu ve / dublu vî |
| Xx | iks |
| Yy | i grec |
| Zz | ze / zet / zed / zî |
The letters Q (chiu), W (dublu ve), and Y (igrec ori grec, meaning "Greek i") were formally introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982, although they had been used earlier. They occur only in foreign words and their Romanian derivatives, such asquasar,watt, andyoga. The letterK, although relatively older, is also rarely used and appears only in proper names and international neologisms such askilogram,broker,karate.[3] These four letters are still perceived as foreign, which explains their usage for stylistic purposes in words such asnomenklatură (normallynomenclatură, meaning "nomenclature", but sometimes spelled withk instead ofc if referring to members of the Communist leadership in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries, asnomenklatura is used in English).[4]
Most of the <qu> and <y> in learned Latin words (or Greek words via Latin) are replaced by <cu/cv> and <i> respectively (e.g.ecuație "equation",acvariu "aquarium",oxigen "oxygen"). However, the <y> is retained in ytriu ("yttrium") and yterbiu ("ytterbium"), probably because of the element symbols Y and Yb.
In cases where the word is a direct borrowing having diacritical marks not present in the above alphabet, official spelling tends to favor their use (München,Angoulême etc., as opposed to the use ofIstanbul overİstanbul).
Until the mid-19th century, Romanian was generally written with aRomanian Cyrillic alphabet derived fromChurch Slavonic, which was used in both Wallachia and Moldavia. During the 19th century a Latin-based transitional alphabet that mixed Cyrillic and Latin letters came into use, and in 1862 the authorities of theUnited Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia decreed the full replacement of Cyrillic with the Latin alphabet for official Romanian-language publications.
In the 20th century several spelling reforms modified the inventory and distribution of letters. A 1904 reform reduced the earlier use of multiple circumflex letters to just ⟨Â⟩ and ⟨Î⟩, while later reforms in 1953, 1964 and 1993 changed when each of these two letters is used to write the phoneme/ɨ/ (seeÎ versus  below). The modern 31-letter inventory was fixed in 1982, when the letters Q, W and Y—previously used only in loanwords and proper names—were officially recognized as part of the Romanian alphabet.[5]
Romanian spelling is mostly phonemic withoutsilent letters (but seei). The table below gives the correspondence between letters and sounds. Some of the letters have several possible readings, even ifallophones are not taken into account. When vowels/i/,/u/,/e/, and/o/ are changed into their correspondingsemivowels, this is not marked in writing. Letters K, Q, W, and Y appear only in foreign borrowings; the pronunciation of W and Y and of the combination QU depends on the origin of the word they appear in.
| Letter | Phoneme[7] | Approximate pronunciation |
|---|---|---|
| A a | /a/ | a in "father" |
| Ăă (a withbreve) | /ə/ | a in "above" |
| Ââ (a withcircumflex) | /ɨ/ | theclose central unrounded vowel as heard, for example, in the last syllable of the wordroses for some English speakers |
| B b | /b/ | b in "ball" |
| C c | /k/ | c in "scan" |
| /tʃ/ | ch in "chimpanzee" — ifc appears before letterse ori (but notî); in this case,e andi are usually not pronounced in the combinations:cea (cia in some loanwords),cio,ciu and in word-finalci if not accented | |
| D d | /d/ | d in "dancing" |
| E e | /e/ | e in "merry" |
| /e̯/,/ɛ̯/ | beforea oro — semivocalic/e/; if not preceded by a consonant becomes/j/[dubious –discuss] | |
| /je/,/jɛ/ | ye in "yes" — in a few old words with initiale:este,el etc.[8] | |
| F f | /f/ | f in "flag" |
| G g | /ɡ/ | g in "goat" |
| /d͡ʒ/ | g in "general" — ifg appears before letterse ori (but notî); in this case,e andi are usually not pronounced in the combinations:gea (gia in some loanwords),gio (geo in some loanwords),giu and in word-finalgi if not accented | |
| H h | /h/ ([h],[ç],[x]) | ch in Scottish "loch" orh in English "ha!" or more usually a subtle mix of the two (that is, not so guttural as the Scottishloch.) |
| (mute) | no pronunciation ifh appears between lettersc org ande ori (che, chi, ghe, ghi);c andg are palatalized | |
| I i | /i/ | i in "machine" |
| /j/ | y in "yes" | |
| /ʲ/ | Indicatespalatalization of the preceding consonant (when word-final and unstressed, in some compounds likeoricum, and in the combinationschia, chio, chiu, ghia, ghio, ghiu) | |
| Îî (i withcircumflex) | /ɨ/ | Identical to Â, see above, used at the beginning and at the end of the word for etymological reasons, ex. "to learn" = "a învăța"; "to kill" = "a omorî" |
| J j | /ʒ/ | s in "treasure" |
| K k | /k/ | c in "scan" (palatalized beforee andi) |
| L l | /l/ | l in "limp" |
| M m | /m/ | m in "mouth" |
| N n | /n/ | n in "north" |
| O o | /o/ | o in "floor" |
| /o̯/,/ɔ̯/ | beforea — semivocalic/o/; if not preceded by a consonant becomes/w/ | |
| P p | /p/ | p in "spot" |
| Q q | /k/ | c in "scan" (qu is pronounced/kw/,/kv/, or/kʲ/) |
| R r | /r/ | alveolar trill ortap |
| S s | /s/ | s in "song" |
| Ș ș (s withcomma)* | /ʃ/ | sh in "shopping" |
| T t | /t/ | t in "stone" |
| Ț ț (t withcomma)* | /t͡s/ | ts in "cats" |
| U u | /u/ | u in "group" |
| /w/ | w in "cow" | |
| /y/ | Frenchu or Germanü (close front rounded vowel) — in some loanwords from French:ecru, tul | |
| V v | /v/ | v in "vision" |
| W w | /v/ | v in "vision" |
| /w/ | w in "west" | |
| /u/ | oo in "spoon" | |
| X x | /ks/ | x in "six" |
| /ɡz/ | x in "example" | |
| Y y | /i/ | i in "machine" |
| /j/ | y in "yes" | |
| Z z | /z/ | z in "zipper" |
* SeeComma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ).
Romanianorthography does not use accents ordiacritics – these are secondary symbols added to letters (i.e. basicglyphs) to alter their pronunciation or to distinguish between words. There are, however, five special letters in the Romanian alphabet (associated with four different sounds) which are formed by modifying other Latin letters; strictly speaking these letters function as basic glyphs in their own right rather than letters with diacritical marks, but they are often referred to as the latter.
The letterâ is used exclusively in the middle of words; itsmajuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions.
Writing letters ș and ț with a cedilla instead of a comma is considered incorrect by the Romanian Academy. Romanian writings, including books created to teach children to write, treat the comma and cedilla as a variation in font. SeeUnicode and HTML below.
The lettersî andâ are phonetically andfunctionally identical. The reason for using both of them is historical, denoting the language'sLatin origin.
For a few decades until aspelling reform in 1904, as many as four or five letters had been used for the same phoneme (â,ê,î,û, and occasionallyô, see Removed Letters), according to an etymological rule.[9] All were used to represent the vowel/ɨ/, toward which the original Latin vowels written with circumflexes had converged. The 1904 reform saw only two letters remaining,â andî, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century.
During the first half of the century the rule was to useî in word-initial and word-final positions, andâ everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use ofî in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example, the adjectiveurît "ugly" was written withî because it derives from the verba urî "to hate".
In 1953, during theCommunist era, theRomanian Academy eliminated the letterâ, replacing it withî everywhere, including the name of the country, which was to be spelledRomînia. The first stipulation coincided with the official designation of the country as aPeople's Republic, which meant that its full title wasRepublica Populară Romînă. A minor spelling reform in 1964 brought back the letterâ, but only in the spelling ofromân "Romanian" and all its derivatives, including the name of the country. As such, theSocialist Republic proclaimed in 1965 is associated with the spellingRepublica Socialistă România.
Soon after the fall of theCeaușescu government, theRomanian Academy decided to reintroduceâ from 1993 onward, by canceling the effects of the 1953 spelling reform and essentially reverting to the 1904 rules (with some differences). The move was publicly justified as the rectification either of a Communist assault on tradition, or of a Soviet influence on the Romanian culture, and as a return to a traditional spelling that bears the mark of the language's Latin origin.[10][11][12] The political context at the time, however, was that the Romanian Academy was largely regarded as a corrupt institution —Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wifeElena had been its honored members, and membership had been controlled by the Communist Party.[13] As such, the 1993 spelling reform was seen as an attempt of the Academy to break with its Communist past.[14][15] The Academy invited the national community of linguists as well as foreign linguists specialized in Romanian to discuss the problem;[16] when these overwhelmingly opposed the spelling reform in vehement terms, their position was explicitly dismissed as being too scientific.[17][18]
According to the 1993 reform, the choice betweenî andâ is thus again based on a rule that is neither strictly etymological nor phonological, but positional and morphological. The sound is always spelled asâ, except at the beginning and the end of words, whereî is to be used instead. Exceptions includeproper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g.ne- +îndemânatic →neîndemânatic "clumsy", not *neândemânatic). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelledurît after 1904 becameurât after 1993.
Although the reform was promoted as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words written withâ according to the 1993 reform actually derive from Latin words having ana in the corresponding position.[19] In fact, this includes a large number of words that contained ani in the original Latin and are similarly written withi in their Italian or Spanish counterparts. Examples includerîu "river", from the Latinrivus (compareSpanishrío), now writtenrâu; along withrîde <ridere,sîn <sinus,strînge <stringere,lumînare <luminaria, etc.
While the 1993 spelling norm is compulsory inRomanian education and official publications, and gradually most other publications came to use it, there are still individuals, publications and publishing houses preferring the previous spelling norm or a mixed hybrid system of their own; among them are the weekly cultural magazineDilema Veche and the dailyGazeta Sporturilor. Some publications allow authors to choose either spelling norm; these includeRomânia literară, the magazine of theWriters' Union of Romania, and publishing houses such asPolirom. Dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works have also been published using theî andsînt long after the 1993 reform.[20]
Ultimately, the conflict results from two different linguistically-based reasonings as to how to spell/ɨ/. The choice ofâ derives froma being the most average or central of the five vowels (the officialBulgarian romanization uses the same logic, choosinga for ъ, resulting in the country's name being spelledBalgariya; and also the European Portuguese vowel/ɐ/ fora mentioned above), whereasî is an attempt to choose the Latin letter that most intuitively writes the sound/ɨ/ (similarly to howPolish uses the lettery).
The Romanian Academy mandates the comma-below variants for the sounds/ʃ/ and/ts/, however, due to an initial lack of glyph standardization, compounded by the lack of computer font support for the comma-below variants (see theUnicode section for details), the cedilla variants may still be seen in use.[example needed]
The comma diacritics have been supported since Windows Vista, Linux after 2005, and macOS[specify]. As mandated by the European Union, Microsoft released afont update for Windows XP, 2000, and Server 2003 in early 2007, soon after Romania joined the European Union.
Before the spelling reform of 1904, there were several additional letters with diacritical marks.
In addition, the acute accent (á,í) was used in verb infinitives and 3rd-person imperfect forms stressed on the last syllable:lăudá ("to praise"),aud̦í ("to hear"), 3rd-person imperfectlăudá,aud̦iá. The grave accent (à,ì,ù) was used in 3rd-person perfect forms stressed on the last syllable:lăudà,aud̦ì.[27]
Use of these letters was not fully adopted even before 1904, as some publications (e.g.Timpul andUniversul) chose to use a simplified approach that resembled today's Romanian language writing.[citation needed]
As with other languages, theacute accent is sometimes used in Romanian texts to indicate thestressed vowel in some words. This use is regular in dictionary headwords, but also occasionally found in carefully edited texts to disambiguate betweenhomographs that are not alsohomophones, such as to differentiate betweencópii ("copies") andcopíi ("children"),éra ("the era") anderá ("was"),ácele ("the needles") andacéle ("those"), etc. The accent also distinguishes between homographic verb forms, such asîncúie andîncuié ("he locks" and "he has locked").[28]
Diacritics in some borrowings are kept:bourrée,pietà. Foreign names are also usually spelled with their original diacritics:Bâle,Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as inIstván orGérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics:Bogota,Panama,Peru.[29]
The character encoding standardISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe —ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only "s" and "t" with cedillas. The South-Eastern EuropeanISO 8859-16 includes "s" and "t" with comma below on the same places "s" and "t" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16 code page became a standard after Unicode became widespread, however, so it was largely ignored by software vendors.
The circumflex and breve accented Romanian letters were part of theUnicode standard since its inception, as well as the cedilla variants of s and t. Ș and ț (comma-below variants) were added to Unicode version 3.0.[30][31] From Unicode version 3.0 to version 5.1, the cedilla-using characters were specified by the Unicode Standard to be "used in both Turkish and Romanian data" and that "a glyph variant with comma below is preferred for Romanian"; On the newly encoded comma-using characters, it said that they should be used "when distinct comma below form is required".[32][33] Unicode 5.2 explicitly states that "the form with the cedilla is preferred in Turkish, and the form with the comma below is preferred in Romanian", while mentioning (possibly for historical reasons) that "in Turkish and Romanian, a cedilla and a comma below sometimes replace one another".[34]
Widespread adoption was hampered for some years by the lack of fonts providing the new glyphs. In May 2007, four months after Romania (and Bulgaria) joined theEU, Microsoft released updated fonts that include all official glyphs of the Romanian (andBulgarian) alphabet.[35] This font update targeted Windows 2000, XP and Server 2003. The subset of Unicode most widely supported on Microsoft Windows systems,Windows Glyph List 4, still does not include the comma-below variants of S and T.
| Phoneme | With comma (official) | With cedilla | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Character | Unicode position (hex) | HTML entity | Character | Unicode position (hex) | HTML entity | |
| /ʃ/ | Ș | 0218 | Ș or Ș | Ş | 015E | Ş or Ş or Ş |
| ș | 0219 | ș or ș | ş | 015F | ş or ş or ş | |
| /t͡s/ | Ț | 021A | Ț or Ț | Ţ | 0162 | Ţ or Ţ or Ţ |
| ț | 021B | ț or ț | ţ | 0163 | ţ or ţ or ţ | |
Vowels with diacritics are coded as follows:
| Phoneme | Character | Unicode position (hex) | HTML entity |
|---|---|---|---|
| /ə/ | Ă | 0102 | Ă or Ă or Ă |
| ă | 0103 | ă or ă or ă | |
| /ɨ/ |  | 00C2 |  or  or  |
| â | 00E2 | â or â or â | |
| Î | 00CE | Î or Î or Î | |
| î | 00EE | î or î or î |
GSUB/latn/ROM/locl feature, which remaps the s with cedilla glyph to comma-below. The rendering on the right is visually indistinguishable from the rendering produced by comma-below code points for this font.Adobe Systems decided[36] that the Unicode glyphs "t with cedilla" U+0162/3 are not used in any language. (It is in fact used, but in very few languages. T with Cedilla exists as part of theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages, in some Gagauz orthographies, in theKabyle dialect of theBerber language, and possibly elsewhere.) Adobe has therefore substituted the glyphs with "t with comma below" (U+021A/B) in all the fonts they ship. The unfortunate consequence of this decision is that Romanian documents using the (unofficial) Unicode points U+015E/F and U+0162/3 (for ş and ţ) are rendered in Adobe fonts in a visually inconsistent way using "s with cedilla", but "t with comma" (see figure).Linotype fonts that support Romanian glyphs mostly follow this convention.[37]
The fonts used by Microsoft before Windows Vista also implement this de facto Adobe standard. Few Microsoft fonts provide a consistent look when cedilla variants are used; notable ones areTahoma,Verdana,Trebuchet MS,Microsoft Sans Serif andSegoe UI.
The freeDejaVu andLinux Libertine fonts provide proper and consistent glyphs in both variants.Red Hat'sLiberation fonts only support the comma below variants starting with version 1.04, scheduled for inclusion inFedora 10.
ROM/locl featureSomeOpenType fonts from Adobe and all C-seriesVista fonts implement the optional OpenType featureGSUB/latn/ROM/locl.[38] This feature forces "s with cedilla" to be rendered using the same glyph as "s with comma below". When this second (but optional) remapping takes place, Romanian Unicode text is rendered with comma-below glyphs regardless of code point variants.
Unfortunately, most Microsoft pre-Vista OpenType fonts (Arial etc.) do not implement theROM/locl feature, even after the European Union Expansion Font Update,[35] so old documents will look inconsistent as in the left side of the above figure. Select few fonts, e.g.Verdana andTrebuchet MS, not only have a consistent look for cedilla variants (after the EU update), but also do a simultaneous remapping of cedilla s and t to comma-below variants whenROM/locl is activated. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts do not yet offer this feature in their current releases, but development versions do.
Pangosupports thelocl tag since version 1.17.XeTeX supportslocl since version 0.995. As of July 2008, very few Windows applications support thelocl feature tag. From the AdobeCS3 suite, onlyInDesign has support for it.[39]
The status of Romanian support in the free fonts that ship withFedora is maintained atFedoraproject.org.
Unicode also allows diacritical marks to be represented as separatecombining diacritical marks. The relevant combining accents are U+0326 COMBINING COMMA BELOW and U+0327 COMBINING CEDILLA. Support for applying a combining Comma Below to letters S and T may have been poorly supported in commercial fonts in the past, but nearly all modern fonts can successfully handle both the Cedilla and Comma Below marks for S and T. As with all fonts, typographical quality can vary, and so it is preferable to use the single code points instead. Whenever a combining diacritical mark is used in a document, the font in use should be tested to confirm that it is rendered acceptably.
LaTeX allows typesetting in Romanian using the cedilla Ş and Ţ using theCork encoding. The comma-below variants are not completely supported in the standard 8-bit TeX font encodings. The lack of a standardLICR (LaTeX Internal Character Representations) for comma-below Ș and Ț is part of the problem. Thelatin10 input method attempts to remedy the problem by defining the \textcommabelow LICR accent. This is unfortunately not supported by theutf8 input method.
The problem may partially worked around in a LaTeX document using these settings, which would allow use of ș, ț or their cedilla variants directly in the LaTeX source:
\usepackage[latin10,utf8]{inputenc}% transliterates utf8 chars with çedila at their comma-below representation\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015F}{\textcommabelow s} % ş\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{015E}{\textcommabelow S} % Ş\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0163}{\textcommabelow t} % ţ\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0162}{\textcommabelow T} % Ţ% transliterates utf8 comma-below characters to the comma-below representation\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0219}{\textcommabelow s} % ș\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{0218}{\textcommabelow S} % Ș\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021B}{\textcommabelow t} % ț\DeclareUnicodeCharacter{021A}{\textcommabelow T} % ȚThelatin10 package composes the comma-below glyphs by superimposing a comma and the letters S and T. This method is suitable only for printing. InPDF documents produced this way searching or copying text does not work properly. The Polish QX encoding has some support for comma-below glyphs, which are improperly mapped to cedilla LICRs, but also lacks A breve (Ă), which must always be composite, thus unsearchable.
In theLatin ModernType 1 fonts the T with comma below is found under the AGL name /Tcommaaccent. This is in contradiction with Adobe's decision discussed above, which puts a T with comma-below at /Tcedilla. In consequence, no fixed mapping can work across all Type 1 fonts; each font must come with its own mapping. Unfortunately, TeX output drivers, likedvips,dvipdfm orpdfTeX's internal PDF driver, access the glyphs byAGL name. Since all of the output drivers mentioned are unaware of this peculiarity, the problem is essentially intractable across all fonts. In consequence, one needs to use fonts that include a mapping which is not bypassed by TeX. This is the case with newer TeX engineXeTeX, which can use Unicode OpenType fonts, and does not bypass the font's Unicode map.
Modern computer operating systems can be configured to implement a standard Romanian keyboard layout, to permit typing on any keyboard as if it were a Romanian keyboard.
In systems such as Linux which employ the XCompose system, Romanian letters may be typed from a non-Romanian keyboard layout using acompose-key.The system's keyboard layout must be set up to use a compose-key. (Exactly how this is accomplished depends on the distribution.) For instance, the 'left Alt' key is often used as a compose-key.
To type a letter with a diacritical mark, the compose-key is held down while another key is typed indicate the mark to be applied, then the base letter is typed. For instance, when using an English (US) keyboard layout, to produce ț, hold the compose-key down while typing semicolon ';', then release the compose-key and type 't'. Other marks may be similarly applied as follows:
| letter | mark key | base letter | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| ț | ; | t | |
| ă | U | a | shift-u for U |
| î | ^ | i | shift-6 for ^ |
There is a Romanian equivalent to the English-languagespelling alphabets. Most of the code words are people's first names, with the exception of K, J, Q, W and Y. Letters with diacritics (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) are generally transmitted without diacritics (A, A, I, S, T).
| Word | IPA (unofficial) | |
|---|---|---|
| A | Ana | /ˈa.na/ |
| B | Barbu | /ˈbar.bu/ |
| C | Constantin | /kon.stanˈtin/ |
| D | Dumitru | /duˈmi.tru/ |
| E | Elena | /eˈle.na/ |
| F | Florea | /ˈflo.re̯a/ |
| G | Gheorghe | /ˈɡe̯or.ɡe/ |
| H | Haralambie | /ha.raˈlam.bi.e/ |
| I | Ion | /iˈon/ |
| J | Jiu | /ʒiw/ |
| K | kilogram | /ki.loˈɡram/ |
| L | Lazăr | /ˈla.zər/ |
| M | Maria | /maˈri.a/ |
| Word | IPA (unofficial) | |
|---|---|---|
| N | Nicolae | /ni.koˈla.e/ |
| O | Olga | /ˈol.ɡa/ |
| P | Petre | /ˈpe.tre/ |
| Q | Q | /ˈkju/ |
| R | Radu | /ˈra.du/ |
| S | Sandu | /ˈsan.du/ |
| T | Tudor | /ˈtu.dor/ |
| U | Udrea | /ˈu.dre̯a/ |
| V | Vasile | /vaˈsi.le/ |
| W | dublu V | /du.bluˈve/ |
| X | Xenia | /ˈkse.ni.a/ |
| Y | I grec | /ˈi.ɡrek/ |
| Z | Zamfir | /zamˈfir/ |
locl glyph localization feature tag explained., microsoft.com| Subdialects |
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|---|---|---|---|
| Dialects/related languages |
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| Linguistics | |||
| Periods ofhistoric evolution | |||
| Written form | |||
| Institutions and movements | |||
| Language contact | |||
| Speech communities | |||
| Others | |||
