Roman numerals are anumeral system that originated inancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into theLate Middle Ages. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from theLatin alphabet, each with a fixed integer value. The modern style uses only these seven:
The use of Roman numerals continued long after thedecline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced byArabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persisted in various places, including onclock faces. For instance, on the clock ofBig Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII
The notationsIV andIX can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring the representation of "4" as "IIII" on Roman numeral clocks.[1]
Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of films and television programmes.MCM, signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is writtenMCMXII. For the years of the current (21st) century,MM indicates 2000; this year isMMXXV (2025).
Description
Roman numerals on stern of the shipCutty Sark showingdraught infeet. The numbers range from 13 to 22, from bottom to top.
Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten, and there is no zero symbol, in contrast with theplace value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten).
This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage varied greatly in ancient Rome and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. The more recent restoration of a largely "classical" notation has gained popularity among some, while variant forms are used by some modern writers as seeking more "flexibility".[2] Roman numerals may be considered legally binding expressions of a number, as in U.S. copyright law before theBerne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral in acopyright notice could invalidate a copyright claim or affect the termination date of the copyright period).[3]
Standard form
The following table displays how Roman numerals are usually written in modern times:[4]
Individual decimal places
Thousands
Hundreds
Tens
Units
1
M
C
X
I
2
MM
CC
XX
II
3
MMM
CCC
XXX
III
4
CD
XL
IV
5
D
L
V
6
DC
LX
VI
7
DCC
LXX
VII
8
DCCC
LXXX
VIII
9
CM
XC
IX
The numerals for 4 (IV) and 9 (IX) are written usingsubtractive notation,[5] where the smaller symbol (I) issubtracted from the larger one (V orX), instead ofIIII andVIIII.[a] Subtractive notation is also used for 40 (XL), 90 (XC), 400 (CD) and 900 (CM).[6] These are the only subtractive forms in standard use.
A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples:
39 =XXX +IX =XXXIX.
246 =CC +XL +VI =CCXLVI.
789 =DCC +LXXX +IX =DCCLXXXIX.
2,421 =MM +CD +XX +I =MMCDXXI.
Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:
The largest number that can be represented in this manner is 3,999 (MMMCMXCIX), but this is sufficient for the values for which Roman numerals are commonly used today, such as year numbers:
1776 =M +DCC +LXX +VI =MDCCLXXVI (the date written on the book held by theStatue of Liberty).
1918 =M +CM +X +VIII =MCMXVIII (the first year of theSpanish flu pandemic)
For larger numbers (4,000 and larger): Both before and after the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, from ancient times through medieval and modern, users of Roman numerals have used various means to write larger numbers(see§ Large numbers below).
Other forms
Forms exist that vary in one way or another from the general standard represented above.
While subtractive notation for 4, 40, and 400 (IV,XL, andCD) has been the usual form since Roman times[citation needed],additive notation to represent these numbers (IIII,XXXX, andCCCC)[9] very frequently continued to be used, including in compound numbers like 24 (XXIIII),[10] 74 (LXXIIII),[11] and 490 (CCCCLXXXX).[12] The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (VIIII,[9]LXXXX,[13] andDCCCC[14]) have also been used, although less often.
The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to theColosseum,IIII is systematically used instead ofIV, but subtractive notation is used forXL; consequently, gate 44 is labelledXLIIII.[15][16]
Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions, 5 and 50 have been occasionally writtenIIIII andXXXXX instead ofV andL, and there are instances such asIIIIII andXXXXXX rather thanVI orLX.[17][18]
Modernclock faces that use Roman numerals still very often useIIII for four o'clock butIX for nine o'clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as theWells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century.[19][20][21] However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on thePalace of Westminster tower (commonly known asBig Ben) uses a subtractiveIV for 4 o'clock.[20][c]
The year number onAdmiralty Arch, London. The year 1910 is rendered asMDCCCCX, rather than the more usualMCMX
Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually writtenMCM). These vary fromMDCCCCX for 1910 as seen onAdmiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not uniqueMDCDIII for 1903, on the north entrance to theSaint Louis Art Museum.[23]
Epitaph ofcenturion Marcus Caelius, showing "XIIX"
Other subtractive forms
There are numerous historical examples ofIIX being used for 8; for example,XIIX was used by officers of theXVIII Roman Legion to write their number.[24][25] The notation appears prominently on thecenotaph of their seniorcenturionMarcus Caelius (c. 45 BC – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known asFasti,XIIX is used for the 18 days to the nextKalends, andXXIIX for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, theFasti Antiates Maiores.[26]There are historical examples of other subtractive forms:IIIXX for 17,[27]IIXX for 18,[28]IIIC for 97,[29]IIC for 98,[30][31] andIC for 99.[32] A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin isduodeviginti—literally "two from twenty"—while 98 isduodecentum (two from hundred) and 99 isundecentum (one from hundred).[33] However, the explanation does not seem to apply toIIIXX andIIIC, since the Latin words for 17 and 97 wereseptendecim (seven ten) andnonaginta septem (ninety seven), respectively.
TheROMAN() function inMicrosoft Excel supports multiple subtraction modes depending on the "Form" setting. For example, the number "499" (usuallyCDXCIX) can be rendered asLDVLIV ((500-50)+(50-5)+(5-1)),XDIX ((500-10)+(10-1)),VDIV ((500-5)+(5-1)) orID (500-1). The relevant Microsoft help page offers no explanation for this function other than to describe its output as "more concise".[34]
Non-standard variants
Padlock used on the northgate of the Irish town ofAthlone. "1613" in the date is renderedXVIXIII, (literally "16, 13") instead ofMDCXIII.Excerpt fromBibliothèque nationale de France.[35] The Roman numeral for 500 is rendered asCV, instead ofD.
There are also historical examples of other additive and multiplicative forms, and forms which seem to reflect spoken phrases. Some of these variants may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries.
IIXX was how people associated with theXXII Roman Legion used to write their number. The practice may have been due to a common way to say "twenty-second" in Latin, namelyduo et vice(n)sima (literally "two and twentieth") rather than the "regular"vice(n)sima secunda (twenty second).[36] Apparently, at least one ancientstonecutter mistakenly thought that theIIXX of "22nd Legion" stood for 18, and "corrected" it toXVIII.[36]
Other numerals that do not fit the usual patterns – such asVXL for 45, instead of the usualXLV — may be due to scribal errors, or the writer's lack of familiarity with the system, rather than being genuine variant usage.
Non-numeric combinations
As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, "XXX" and "XL" have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while "IXL" more often than not is agramogram of "I excel", and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral.[37]
Zero
As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no "place-keeping" zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the numberzero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The wordnulla (theLatin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instanceDionysius Exiguus usednulla alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD.[38][39] About 725,Bede or one of his colleagues used the letterN, the initial ofnulla or ofnihil (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table ofepacts, all written in Roman numerals.[40]
The use ofN to indicate "none" long survived in the historicapothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions.[41]
In later times, the Arabic numeral "0" has been used as a zero to open enumerations with Roman numbers. Examples include the 24-hourShepherd Gate Clock from 1852 andtarot packs such as the 15th-centurySola Busca and the 20th centuryRider–Waite packs.
Fractions
Atriens coin (1⁄3 or4⁄12 of anas). Note the four dots (····) indicating its value.Asemis coin (1⁄2 or6⁄12 of anas). Note theS indicating its value.
The base "Roman fraction" isS, indicating1⁄2. The use ofS (as inVIIS to indicate7+1⁄2) is attested in some ancient inscriptions[42] and in the now rare apothecaries' system (usually in the formSS):[41] but while Roman numerals forwhole numbers are essentiallydecimal,S does not correspond to5⁄10, as one might expect, but6⁄12.
The Romans used aduodecimal rather than a decimal system forfractions, as thedivisibility of twelve(12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle the commonfractions of1⁄3 and1⁄4 than does a system based on ten(10 = 2 × 5). Notation for fractions other than1⁄2 is mainly found on survivingRoman coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unitas. Fractions less than1⁄2 are indicated by a dot (·) for eachuncia "twelfth", the source of the English wordsinch andounce; dots are repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half), isS forsemis "half".Uncia dots were added toS for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added toV for whole numbers from six to nine.[43] The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarilylinear. Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of adie) are known as aquincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin wordssextans andquadrans are the source of the English wordssextant andquadrant.
Each fraction from1⁄12 to12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:
Fractions could also be indicated with a slash through the last letter in a numeral (e.g.Ɨ), which subtracted the number by an amount less than one (usually1⁄2).[44]
Large numbers
The modern form can only write numbers up to 3999, and without M in early Roman times only numbers up to 899 could be written. Various schemes have been used over time to write larger numbers.
Apostrophus
"1630" on theWesterkerk in Amsterdam. "M" and "D" are given archaicapostrophus form.
Using theapostrophus method,[45] 500 is written asIↃ, while 1,000 is written asCIↃ.[22] This system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine theCs andↃs as parentheses) had its origins in Etruscan numeral usage.
Each additional set ofC andↃ surroundingCIↃ raises the value by a factor of ten:CCIↃↃ represents 10,000 andCCCIↃↃↃ represents 100,000. Similarly, each additionalↃ to the right ofIↃ raises the value by a factor of ten:IↃↃ represents 5,000 andIↃↃↃ represents 50,000. Numerals larger thanCCCIↃↃↃ do not occur.[46]
Page from a 16th-century manual, showing a mixture ofapostrophus andvinculum numbers (see in particular the ways of writing 10,000).
IↃ = 500
CIↃ = 1,000
IↃↃ = 5,000
CCIↃↃ = 10,000
IↃↃↃ = 50,000
CCCIↃↃↃ = 100,000
SometimesIↃ (500) is reduced toD,CIↃ (1,000) toↀ,IↃↃ (5,000) toↁ;CCIↃↃ (10,000) toↂ;IↃↃↃ (50,000) toↇ; andCCCIↃↃↃ (100,000) toↈ.[47] It is likelyCIↃ (1000) influenced the laterM.
Using thevinculum, conventional Roman numerals are multiplied by 1,000 by adding a "bar" or "overline", thus:[47]
IV = 4,000
XXV = 25,000
Thevinculumcame into use in thelate Republic,[48] and it was a common alternative to the apostrophic ↀ during the Imperial era around the Roman world (M for '1000' was not in use until the Medieval period).[49][50] It continued in use in the Middle Ages, though it became known more commonly astitulus,[51] and it appears in modern editions of classical and medieval Latin texts.[52][53]
In an extension of thevinculum, a three-sided box (now sometimes printed as two vertical lines and avinculum) is used to multiply by 100,000,[54][48] thus:
Vinculum notation is distinct from the custom of adding an overline to a numeral simply to indicate that it is a number. Both usages can be seen on Roman inscriptions of the same period and general location, such as on theAntonine Wall.[55][56]
Other
There are some examples of year numbers after 1000 written as two Roman numerals 1–99, e.g. 1613 asXVIXIII, corresponding to the common reading "sixteen thirteen" of such year numbers in English, or 1519 asXCVXIX as inFrenchquinze-cent-dix-neuf (fifteen-hundred and nineteen), and similar readings in other languages.[57]
In some French texts from the 15th century and later, one finds constructions likeIIIIXXXIX for 99, reflecting the French reading of that number asquatre-vingt-dix-neuf (four-score and nineteen).[57] Similarly, in some English documents one finds, for example, 77 written as "iiixxxvii" (which could be read "three-score and seventeen").[58]
A medieval accounting text from 1301 renders numbers like 13,573 as "XIII. M. V. C. III. XX. XIII", that is, "13×1000 + 5×100 + 3×20 + 13".[59]
Origin
The system is closely associated with the ancientcity-state of Rome and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing theories, all largely conjectural.
Rome was founded sometime between 850 and 750 BC, next to the southern edge of the Etruscan domain, which covered a large part of north-central Italy.
The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from theEtruscan number symbols:⟨𐌠⟩,⟨𐌡⟩,⟨𐌢⟩,⟨𐌣⟩, and⟨𐌟⟩ for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (they had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus, the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 sinceEtruscan was written from right to left.)[60]
The symbols⟨𐌠⟩ and⟨𐌡⟩ resembled letters of the Etruscan alphabet, but⟨𐌢⟩,⟨𐌣⟩, and⟨𐌟⟩ did not. The Etruscans used the subtractive notation, too, but not like the Romans. They wrote 17, 18, and 19 as 𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, 𐌠𐌠𐌢𐌢, and 𐌠𐌢𐌢, mirroring the way they spoke those numbers ("three from twenty", etc.); and similarly for 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, etc. However, they did not write 𐌠𐌡 for 4 (nor 𐌢𐌣 for 40), and wrote 𐌡𐌠𐌠, 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠 and 𐌡𐌠𐌠𐌠𐌠 for 7, 8, and 9, respectively.[60]
Early Roman numerals
The early Roman numerals for 1, 10, and 100 were the Etruscan ones:⟨𐌠⟩,⟨𐌢⟩, and⟨𐌟⟩. The symbols for 5 and 50 changed from⟨𐌡⟩ and⟨𐌣⟩ to⟨V⟩ and⟨ↆ⟩ at some point. The latter had flattened to⟨⊥⟩ (an inverted T) by the time ofAugustus, and soon afterwards became identified with the graphically similar letter⟨L⟩.[46]
The symbol for 100 was written variously as⟨𐌟⟩ or⟨ↃIC⟩, and was then abbreviated to⟨Ↄ⟩ or⟨C⟩, with⟨C⟩ (which matched the Latin letterC) finally winning out. It might have helped thatC was the initial letter ofCENTUM, Latin for "hundred".
The numbers 500 and 1000 were denoted byV orX overlaid with a box or circle. Thus, 500 was like aƆ superimposed on a⋌ or⊢, making it look likeÞ. It becameD orÐ by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letterD. It was later identified as the letterD; an alternative symbol for "thousand" was aCIↃ, and half of a thousand or "five hundred" is the right half of the symbol,IↃ, and this may have been converted intoD.[22]
The notation for 1000 was a circled or boxedX: Ⓧ,⊗,⊕, and by Augustan times was partially identified with the Greek letterΦphi. Over time, the symbol changed toΨ andↀ. The latter symbol further evolved into∞, then⋈, and eventually changed toM under the influence of the Latin wordmille "thousand".[46]
According to Paul Kayser, the basic numerical symbols wereI,X,𐌟 andΦ (or⊕) and the intermediate ones were derived by taking half of those (half anX isV, half a𐌟 isↆ and half aΦ/⊕ isD). Then 𐌟 and ↆ developed as mentioned above.[61]
Entrance to sectionLII (52) of theColosseum, with numerals still visible
Classical Roman numerals
TheColosseum was constructed in Rome in CE 72–80,[62] and while the original perimeter wall has largely disappeared, the numbered entrances fromXXIII (23) toLIIII (54) survive,[63] to demonstrate that in Imperial times Roman numerals had already assumed their classical form:as largely standardised in current use. The most obvious anomaly (a common one that persisted for centuries) is the inconsistent use of subtractive notation - whileXL is used for 40,IV is avoided in favour ofIIII: in fact, gate 44 is labelledXLIIII.
Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
Lower case, orminuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of theWestern Roman Empire, and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used:i,ii,iii,iv, and so on.
13th century example ofiiij.
Since the Middle Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the final "i" of a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "iij" for 3 or "vij" for 7. This "j" can be considered aswash variant of "i". Into the early 20th century, the use of a final "j" was still sometimes used inmedical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it was written.[64]
Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "A" for "V", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "XL"). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.[44]
A superscript "o" (sometimes written directly above the symbol) was sometimes used as anordinal indicator.[65]
Number
Medieval abbreviation
Notes and etymology
5
A
Resembles an upside-down V. Also said to equal 500.
6
ↅ
Either from aligature ofVI, or fromdigamma (ϛ), the Greek numeral 6 (sometimes conflated with theστ ligature).[46]
7
S,Z
Presumed abbreviation ofseptem, Latin for 7.
11
O
Presumed abbreviation ofonze, French for 11.
40
F
Presumed abbreviation of Englishforty.
70
S
Also could stand for 7, with the same derivation.
80
R
90
N
Presumed abbreviation ofnonaginta, Latin for 90. (Ambiguous withN for "nothing" (nihil)).
150
Y
Possibly derived from the lowercase y's shape.
151
K
Unusual, origin unknown; also said to stand for 250.[66]
160
T
Possibly derived from Greektetra, as 4 × 40 = 160.
200
H
Could also stand for 2 (see also 𐆙, the symbol for thedupondius). From a barring of twoI's.
250
E
300
B
400
P,G
500
Q
Redundant withD; abbreviatesquingenti, Latin for 500. Also sometimes used for 500,000.[67]
Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during theRenaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the lettersI,V,X,L,C,D, andM. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year.
Modern use
By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe fromal-Andalus, by way ofArab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using anabacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:
Names of monarchs and popes, e.g.Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom,Pope Leo XIV. These are referred to asregnal numbers and are usually read asordinals; e.g.II is pronounced "the second". This tradition began in Europe sporadically in theMiddle Ages, gaining widespread use in England during the reign ofHenry VIII. Previously, the monarch was not known by numeral but by anepithet such asEdward the Confessor. Some monarchs (e.g.Charles IV of Spain,Louis XIV of France andWilliam IV of Great Britain) seem to have preferred the use ofIIII instead ofIV on their coinage (see illustration).
Generational suffixes, particularly in the U.S., for people sharing the same name across generations, such asWilliam Howard Taft IV. These are also usually read as ordinals.
In theFrench Republican Calendar, initiated during theFrench Revolution, years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the yearI (1792) when this calendar was introduced to the yearXIV (1805) when it was abandoned.
The year of construction of theCambridge Public Library (Massachusetts, U.S.), 1888, displayed in "standard" Roman numerals on its facade. The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art within the work itself. Outside reference to the work will use regular Arabic numerals.
Hour marks ontimepieces. In this context, 4 is often writtenIIII.
Ineducation, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores) are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "gradeIX" is sometimes seen for "grade 9".
Stylised "IX" represents "9" in unit emblem of9th Aero Squadron AEF, 1918.
Inentomology, the broods of the thirteen- and seventeen-yearperiodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.
Ingraphic design, stylised Roman numerals may represent numeric values.
Inlaw, Roman numerals are commonly used to help organize legal codes as part of analphanumeric outline.
Inmathematics (includingtrigonometry,statistics, andcalculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named usingI,II,III, andIV.[72] These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the x-axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the y-axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.
Inmilitary unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example, the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the Nazi III Panzerkorps) with Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.
Inmusic, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:
Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals.
Individual strings ofstringed instruments, such as theviolin, are often denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower strings.
Inpharmacy, Roman numerals were used with the now largely obsoleteapothecaries' system of measurement: includingSS to denote "one half" andN to denote "zero".[41][73]
Inphotography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using theZone System.
Example of postage stamp from Ireland (Éire) franked using Roman numeral for the month
Insport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or province, aclub or a school at the highest level in (say)rugby union is often called the "1stXV", while a lower-rankingcricket orAmerican football team might be the "3rdXI".
Intarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are often used to denote the cards of theMajor Arcana.
InIreland, Roman numerals were used until the late 1980s to indicate the month on postageFranking. In documents, Roman numerals are sometimes still used to indicate the month to avoid confusion over day/month/year or month/day/year formats.
Intheology andbiblical scholarship, theSeptuagint is often referred to asLXX, as this translation of theOld Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy").
Modern use in European languages other than English
Some uses that are rare or never seen in English-speaking countries may be relatively common in parts ofcontinental Europe and in other regions (e.g.Latin America) that use a European language other than English. For instance:
Capital orsmall capital Roman numerals are widely used inRomance languages to denotecenturies, e.g. the Frenchxviiie siècle[74] and the Spanishsigloxviii (notxviii siglo) for "18th century". Some Slavic and Turkic languages (especially in and adjacent to Russia) similarly favour Roman numerals (e.g. RussianXVIII век, AzeriXVIII əsr or Polishwiek XVIII[75]). On the other hand, inTurkish and someCentral European Slavic languages, like mostGermanic languages, one writes "18." (with a period) before the local word for "century" (e.g. Turkish18. yüzyıl, Czech18. století).
When typing on Russian typewriters, the Roman-numeral "V" was replaced with "У" because the letter "V" was absent in the Russian Cyrillic alphabet. Additionally, the Roman-numeral "I" was replaced with "1", since this letter had been removed from the Russian alphabet by the1918 reform of orthography. For example, XVIII was typed as ХУ111. This style is sometimes maintained even when typing on a computer, either out of habit or due to the inconvenience of switching between Latin and Russian script for one or two letters.
Boris Yeltsin's signature, dated 10 November 1988, rendered as 10.XI.'88.
Mixed Roman and Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). Themonth is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Arabic numerals: "4.VI.1789" and "VI.4.1789" both refer unambiguously to 4 June 1789.
Business hours table on a shop window inVilnius, Lithuania.
Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent thedays of the week in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses,[76] and sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented byI. Sunday is represented byVII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and isclosed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24-hour time.
Sign at 17.9 km on route SS4Salaria, north of Rome, Italy.
Roman numerals may also be used forfloor numbering.[77][78] For instance, apartments in centralAmsterdam are indicated as 138-III, with both an Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as138-huis.
In Italy, where roads outside built-up areas havekilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals fromI toIX for the smaller intervals. The signIX/17 thus marks 17.9 km.
A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, whereGreek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.
Unicode
The "Number Forms" block of theUnicode computer character set standard has a number ofRoman numeral symbols in the range ofcode points from U+2160 to U+2188.[79] This range includes both upper- and lowercase numerals, as well as pre-combined characters for numbers up to 12. One justification for the existence of pre-combined numbers is to facilitate the setting of multiple-letter numbers (such as VIII) on a single horizontal line in Asian vertical text. The Unicode standard, however, includes special Roman numeral code points for compatibility only, stating that "[f]or most purposes, it is preferable to compose the Roman numerals from sequences of the appropriate Latin letters".[80] The block also includes someapostrophus symbols for large numbers, an old variant of "L" (50) similar to the Etruscan character, theClaudian letter "reversed C", etc.[81]
^IV andIX not only have fewer characters thanIIII andVIIII, but are less likely to be confused (especially at a quick glance) withIII andVIII.[citation needed]
^This is the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) year in which Wikipedia's cache of this page was last updated, so may be a few hours out of date.
^Isaac Asimov once mentioned an "interesting theory" that Romans avoided usingIV because it was the initial letters ofIVPITER, the Latin spelling ofJupiter, and might have seemedimpious.[22] He did not say whose theory it was.
^XIII = 13 × 100,000 = 1,300,000 andXXXII = 32 × 1000 = 32,000, so 'XIIIXXXII = 1,332,000.p. is a common abbreviation forpassus, paces, the Romans counting a pace as two steps.
Citations
^Judkins, Maura (4 November 2011)."Public clocks do a number on Roman numerals".The Washington Post. Archived fromthe original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved13 August 2019.Most clocks using Roman numerals traditionally use IIII instead of IV... One of the rare prominent clocks that uses the IV instead of IIII is Big Ben in London.
^abGaius Iulius Caesar.Commentarii de bello Gallico, Book II, Section 4 (in Latin) – viaWikisource. Book II, Section 4: "... XV milia Atrebates, Ambianos X milia, Morinos XXV milia, Menapios VII milia, Caletos X milia, Veliocasses et Viromanduos totidem, Atuatucos XVIIII milia; ..." Book II, Section 8: "... ab utroque latere eius collis transversam fossam obduxit circiter passuum CCCC et ad extremas fossas castella constituit..." Book IV, Section 15: "Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti belli timore, cum hostium numerus capitum CCCCXXX milium fuisset, se in castra receperunt." Book VII, Section 4: "...in hiberna remissis ipse se recipit die XXXX Bibracte."
^Rocca, Angelo (1612).De campanis commentarius. Rome: Guillelmo Faciotti.Title of a Plate: "Campana a XXIIII hominibus pulsata" ("Bell to be sounded by 24 men").
^Gaius Plinius Secundus.Naturalis Historia, Book III (in Latin) – viaWikisource. Book III: "Saturni vocatur, Caesaream Mauretaniae urbemCCLXXXXVII p[assum]. traiectus. reliqua in ora flumen Tader ... ortus in Cantabris haut procul oppido Iuliobrica, perCCCCL p. fluens ..." Book IV: "Epiri, Achaiae, Atticae, Thessalia in porrectum longitudo CCCCLXXXX traditur, latitudo CCLXXXXVII." Book VI: "tam vicinum Arsaniae fluere eum in regione Arrhene Claudius Caesar auctor est, ut, cum intumuere, confluant nec tamen misceantur leviorque Arsanias innatet MMMM ferme spatio, mox divisus in Euphraten mergatur."
^Bennet, Thomas (1731).Grammatica Hebræa, cum uberrima praxi in usum tironum ... Editio tertia. T. Astley. p. 24. Copy in the British Library; 149 pages. Page 24: "PRÆFIXA duo suntviz.Heemphaticum vel relativum (de quo Cap VI Reg. LXXXX.) &ShincumSegalsequenteDagesh,quod denotat pronomen relativum..."
^abcAsimov, Isaac (1966).Asimov on Numbers(PDF). Pocket Books, a division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. p. 12.
^"Gallery: Museum's North Entrance (1910)". Saint Louis Art Museum. Archived fromthe original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved10 January 2014.The inscription over the North Entrance to the Museum reads: "Dedicated to Art and Free to All MDCDIII." These roman numerals translate to 1903, indicating that the engraving was part of the original building designed for the 1904 World's Fair.
^Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A (2004).Handbook to life in ancient Rome (2 ed.). Facts On File. p. 270.ISBN0-8160-5026-0.
^Boyne, William (1968).A manual of Roman coins. p. 13.
^Degrassi, Atilius, ed. (1963).Inscriptiones Italiae. Vol. 13: Fasti et Elogia. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato. Fasciculus 2: Fasti anni Numani et Iuliani.
^Sulpicius à Munscrod, Raphael (1621).Vera Ac Germana Detecto Clandestinarvm Deliberationvm (in Latin). p. 16. Page 16, line 1: "repertum Originale Subdatum IIIXXX Aug. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 41, upper right corner: "Decemb. A. C. MDC.IIXX". Page 42, upper left corner: "Febr. A. C. MDC.XIX". Page 70: "IIXX. die Maij sequentia in consilio noua ex Bohemia allata....". Page 71: "XIX. Maij.
^abMalone, Stephen James (August 2005).Legio XX Valeria Victrix: A Prosographical and Historical Study(PDF) (Thesis). Vol. 2. University of Nottingham. On page 396 it discusses many coins with "Leg. IIXX" and notes that it must be Legion 22. The footnote on that page says: "The form IIXX clearly reflecting the Latinduo et vicensima 'twenty-second': cf. X5398,legatus I[eg II] I et vicensim(ae) Pri[mi]g; VI 1551,legatus leg] IIXX Prj; III 14207.7,miles leg IIXX; and III 10471-3, a vexillation drawn from four German legions including 'XVIII PR' – surely here the stonecutter's hypercorrection for IIXX PR.
^abCapelli, Adriano (1912)."Numerazione romana".Lexicon abbreviaturarum : dizionario di abbreviature Latine ed Italiane (in Italian). Ulrico Hoepli. pp. 413–421. Retrieved21 March 2025.
^abIfrah, Georges (2000).The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Translated by David Bellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood, Ian Monk. John Wiley & Sons.
^abDilke, Oswald Ashton Wentworth (1987).Mathematics and measurement. Reading the past. London: British Museum Publications. p. 15.ISBN978-0-7141-8067-0.
^abGachard, M. (1862)."II. Analectes historiques, neuvième série (nos CCLXI-CCLXXXIV)".Bulletin de la Commission royale d'Historie.31 (3):345–554.doi:10.3406/bcrh.1862.3033. Page 347:Lettre de Philippe le Beau aux échevins..., quote: "Escript en nostre ville de Gand, le XXIIIIme de febvrier, l'an IIIIXXXIX [quatre-vingt-dix-neuf = 99]." Page 356:Lettre de l'achiduchesse Marguerite au conseil de Brabant..., quote: "... Escript à Bruxelles, le dernier jour de juing anno XVcXIX [1519]." Page 374:Letters patentes de la rémission ... de la ville de Bruxelles, quote: "... Op heden, tweentwintich ['twenty-two'] daegen in decembri, anno vyfthien hondert tweendertich ['fifteen hundred thirty-two']... Gegeven op ten vyfsten dach in deser jegewoirdige maent van decembri anno XV tweendertich [1532] vorschreven." Page 419:Acte du duc de Parme portant approbation..., quote: "Faiet le XVme de juillet XVc huytante-six [1586].".
^Salter, Herbert Edward (1923).Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis 1483–1521. Vol. 76. Oxford Historical Society. 544 pages. Page 184 has the computation in pounds:shillings:pence (li:s:d) x:iii:iiii + xxi:viii:viii + xlv:xiiii:i = iiixxxvii:vi:i, i.e. 10:3:4 + 21:8:8 + 45:14:1 = 77:6:1.
^Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'imprimerie nationale (in French) (6th ed.). Paris:Imprimerie nationale. March 2011. p. 126.ISBN978-2-7433-0482-9.On composera en chiffres romains petites capitales les nombres concernant : ↲ 1. Les siècles.
^Burska, Katarzyna."cyfry arabskie a zapis wieku" [Arabic digits when formatting centuries].Poradnia językowa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego (in Polish). University of Łódź.
Aczel, Amir D. 2015.Finding Zero: A Mathematician's Odyssey to Uncover the Origins of Numbers. 1st edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Goines, David Lance.A Constructed Roman Alphabet: A Geometric Analysis of the Greek and Roman Capitals and of the Arabic Numerals. Boston: D.R. Godine, 1982.
Houston, Stephen D. 2012.The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press.
Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. "Roman numerals and the abacus."Classica et medievalia 26: 147–60.
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