ARoman mosaic is amosaic made during theRoman period, throughout theRoman Republic and laterEmpire. Mosaics were used in a variety of private and public buildings,[1] on both floors and walls, though they competed with cheaperfrescos for the latter. They were highly influenced by earlier and contemporaryHellenisticGreek mosaics, and often included famous figures from history and mythology, such asAlexander the Great in theAlexander Mosaic.
A large proportion of the surviving examples of wall mosaics come from Italian sites such asPompeii andHerculaneum. Otherwise, floor mosaics are far more likely to have survived, with many coming from thefringes of the Roman Empire. TheBardo National Museum inTunis has an especially large collection from large villas in modernTunisia.[2]
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Perhaps the earliest examples of Greco-Roman mosaic floors date to the lateRepublican period (2nd century BC) and arefrom Delos, Greece. Witts claims thattessellated pavements, usingtesserae, were used in Europe from the late fifth to early fourth centuries BC.[3] This is contradicted by Ruth Westgate, who contends that the earliest tessellated mosaics of theHellenistic period date to the 3rd century BC, with the 2nd to early 1st-century BCmosaics of Delos constituting roughly half of the known examples.[4] Hetty Joyce andKatherine M. D. Dunbabin concur with this assessment, asserting that the transition frompebble mosaics to more complex tessellated mosaics originated in Hellenistic-Greek Sicily during the 3rd century BC, developed at sites such asMorgantina andSyracuse.[5][6] The earliest knownpebble mosaics and use ofchip pavement are found atOlynthus in Greece'sChalcidice, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, while other examples can be found atPella, capital ofMacedon, dated to the 4th century BC.[7][6]
The earliest mosaics of RomanPompeii, dated to thePompeian First Style of wall painting in the late 2nd and early 1st centuries BC, were clearly derived from theHellenistic Greek model.[8] However, they contained far more figured scenes on average, less abstract design, the absence oflead strips, as well as an almost complete lack of complex, three-dimensional scenes utilizingpolychromy until thePompeian Second Style of wall painting (80–20 BC).[9][8]
The mosaics in theVilla Romana del Casale (c. 300 AD) fromRoman Sicily perhaps represent the hallmark of mosaic art in theLate Imperial period. The mosaic decoration of the local palace complex culminates in the gallery, which contains a scene of animal hunting and fighting covering an area of 3,200 square feet (300 m2).[10]
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Roman mosaics are constructed from geometrical blocks calledtesserae,[11] placed together to create the shapes of figures, motifs and patterns.[3] Materials for tesserae were obtained from local sources of natural stone, with the additions of cut brick, tile and pottery creating coloured shades of, predominantly, blue, black, red, white and yellow.[3] Polychrome patterns were most common, butmonochrome examples are known.[12] Marble and glass were occasionally used as tesserae,[13] as were small pebbles,[14] and precious metals likegold.[15]
Mosaic decoration was not just confined to floors but featured on walls and vaults as well. Traces of guidelines have been found beneath some mosaics, either scored into or painted onto the mortar bedding. The design might also be pegged out in string,[3] or mounted in a wooden frame.[16]
The collapse of buildings in antiquity can, paradoxically, both irrevocably destroy mosaics or protect and preserve them.[3]
Roman mosaics frequently depicted religious figures, theatrical scenes, mythological stories, geometric labyrinth patterns, and other decorative designs.[17][18][19]
Imagery of famous individuals or entertaining scenes are common on Roman mosaics. TheAlexander Mosaic from theHouse of the Faun,Pompeii depicts theBattle of Issus betweenAlexander the Great andDarius III.[20] In addition to famous people from antiquity, mosaics can depict aspects of daily life. TheGladiator Mosaic fromRome depicts a fighting scene, naming each gladiator involved. A gladiatorial scene is also known fromLeptis Magna.[21]
Roman portrait mosaics, as well as Roman portraits in general, often depicted men and women with similar physical features or attire. This practice became especially commonplace during the Imperial Period and dates back to as early as 18 BC. There is evidence for this in a series of Denarii (Roman silver coins), which portray the goddessVirtus with recognizable Augustan features.[22]
One common type of Roman mosaics are geometric mosaics, which there is evidence for all across the Roman Empire. Geometric mosaics are often made up of intricate patterns in the style of mazes or labyrinths. There are 57 known floor mosaics in the style of labyrinths, and the majority of them are found in private homes or bathhouses. All 57 were catalogued in 1977 by German archaeologist, Wiktor Daszewski.[23] Scholar Rebecca Molholt discusses the reasoning behind why so many of the known maze mosaics were found in bathhouses. Maze mosaics were believed to have apotropaic powers and this is reflected in many mosaics which incorporate scenes of mythical creatures or stories. Furthermore, labyrinth mosaics were considered to be bearers of good luck for those who could successfully make their way through the maze. On their way to bathe, athletes likely would walk through these mazes on their way to bathe in preparation for competition. The experience of walking along the labyrinth pattern would have likely heightened the senses, as the participants would be acutely aware of their feet along the mosaic on the floor.[24]
One of the earliest examples ofEarly Christian art in mosaic is the early 4th-century floor mosaic froma villa at Hinton St Mary,Dorset, England, which shows Christ with aChi-Rho behind his head. The mosaic is now in theBritish Museum.[10]Orpheus mosaics, which often include many animals drawn by the god's playing, are very common; he was also used in Early Christian art as a symbol for Christ. Scenes ofDionysus are another common subject.
As the Roman period merged intoLate Antiquity, wall mosaics became the dominant form of art in grand churches, and thegold-ground style became usual.Italy has a high proportion of the surviving examples.
Progression within the mosaic technique developed the emblem, the "heart" of all mosaics. The word emblem is used to describe a small mosaic featuring a little genre scene or still life, characterised by particularly thin tesserae made separately and mounted in a central or important position in the main panel.
In May 2020, the discovery of a well-preserved Roman mosaic floor dating to the 3rd century AD buried underneath a vineyard atNegrar is reported after about a century of searching the site of a long-lost villa.[25][26][27]
In October 2022, a 1,600-year-old intact Roman mosaic measuring 20 x 6 metres was found under a building inAl-Rastan, Syria. Al-Rastan, a city nearHoms in Syria that was held by rebels until 2018. The building was being excavated by Syria's General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums, and was donated by the LebaneseNabu Museum to the Syrian state. At the time of excavation, it was unclear whether the building which housed the mosaic was a public bathhouse or something else. The mosaic showed mythical scenes including portraying the Roman sea godNeptune and 40 of his mistresses, as well as Hercules slaying the Amazon queenHippolyta.[28][29]
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