TheRoman legion (Latin:legiō,Latin:[ˈɫɛɡioː]), the largestmilitaryunit of theRoman army, was composed ofRoman citizens serving aslegionaries. During theRoman Republic the manipular legion comprised 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. After theMarian reforms in 107 BC, the legions were formed of 5,200 men and were restructured around 10 cohorts, the first cohort being double strength. This structure persisted throughout thePrincipate andmiddle Empire, before further changes in thefourth century resulted in new formations of around 1,000 men.
The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements ranging from 4,200 legionaries and 300equites (drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the Republic,[1] to 5,500 in the Imperial period, when most legions were led by a Roman Imperial Legate.
A legion had 4,800legionaries (in 10cohorts of 6 centuries of 80 legionaries) from the late republic to the time ofJulius Caesar. It expanded to 5,280 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the Imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, with the first cohort being almost double-strength at 800 men). These are typical field strengths while "paper strength" was slightly higher (e.g. 600 and 1,200 respectively for Imperial cohorts).
In the earlyRoman Kingdom the termlegion may have meant the entireRoman army, but sources on this period are few and unreliable.[2] The subsequent organisation of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of therepublican era, a legion was divided into three lines, each of ten maniples. In the late Republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a smallala, or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD,East Romanborder guard legions (limitanei) may have become even smaller. In terms of organization and function, the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonianphalanx.[3]
For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's eliteheavy infantry, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted ofauxiliaries, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of theRoman cavalry (provincials who aspired toRoman citizenship gained it whenhonourably discharged from the auxiliaries). The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.[4]
Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notablyLegio V Macedonica, which was founded byAugustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during theIslamic conquest of Egypt.
On the other hand,Legio XVII ("Seventeenth Legion"),Legio XVIII ("Eighteenth Legion") andLegio XIX ("Nineteenth Legion"), founded byAugustus around 41 BC,[5][6][7] were destroyed by a Germanic alliance led byArminius in theVarian Disaster (September 9, AD 9) and never raised again by the Romans thereafter.[8]
Quintili Vare, legiones redde! (Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!)[9]
Almost nothing is known about the legion of theRoman Kingdom period that could have included 1000 men from each of the three originalRoman tribes. The earliest surviving detailed description comes fromPolybius, who was writingc. 150BC and his account most likely was influenced by the organization of the Roman army after the defeat ofHannibal in thePunic wars some 50 years earlier.[10]
The legions of the Republic were only conscripted in times of conflict and usually limited to four legions, two to be commanded by each consul, though more could be levied if needed. Legionaries lacked the opportunity of a military career; they were not paid well, their primary form of income being what they could loot from the battlefield, and were simply called upon when needed and returned to their civilian lives when they were no longer required.
In terms of organization and function, the early Republican era military was inherited from theEtruscans and seemingly influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonianphalanx.[3]
Depiction of Roman legionnaires
After a crushing defeat at theBattle of the Allia, in 387 BC the military structure was reformed. Under the Camillan system the legions were initially structured based on social class, withthe poorest being the first line of the formation. The legionaries most often fought withhastae (spears) andscuta (large rectangular shields) in a checkeredmaniple formation with assistance from skirmishers. The exception to this was thetriarii, the final line of the formation who instead fought as hoplites, using Greekclipei and whose wealth could afford themgladii in the case of a broken spear.
By the 3rd century BC, this system was seen to be inefficient. Under the newPolybian system the ranks were no longer structured by wealth, and instead by age and experience. All legionaries had theirhastae replaced bygladii, along with twopila, which were used as an opening volley beforemelee. The former classes of poor legionaries, theaccensi,rorarii, andleves were replaced by thevelites. Unit sizes were also expanded.
Non-citizens orperegrini were also offered a position in the military as auxiliaries.
The Republican legion evolved from 3,000 men in theRoman Republic to over 5,200 men in theRoman Empire, consisting ofcenturies as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century AD, ten cohorts made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each).
By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units – originally temporary detachments – to cover more territory.
In the period before the raising of thelegio and the early years of theRoman Kingdom and theRoman Republic, forces are described as being organised intocenturiae of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organisation persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalised as acenturion),second in command andstandard bearer are referenced in this early period.
Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule ofServius Tullius, thecensus (fromLatin:censeō – accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organised into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army orlegio (multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen.
At some point after theoverthrow of the Roman monarchy thelegio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the twoconsuls. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictatorManius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions whichLivy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.[11]
Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organised in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each.
In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organised into legions) to support each Roman Legion.
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
Equites (cavalry): thecavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more lances. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total ofc. 3,000 men (plus thevelites that normally enlarged the number to about 4,200), the legion only had around 300 horsemen, divided into ten units (turmae) of 30 men. These men were commanded bydecurions. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in thehastati or theequites. In battle, they were used to disrupt andoutflank enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement, they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and agility in a time beforestirrups.[12]
Velites (light infantry): these were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act asskirmishers – javelin-throwers, who would engage the enemy early in order either to harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them. After throwing their javelins, they would retreat through the gaps between the maniples, screened from the attack of the enemy by the heavy infantry lines. With the shortage of cavalry in the army of the early to mid Republican army, thevelites were also used as scouts. They did not have a precise formal organisation or formation.
Heavy infantry: this was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of a bronze helmet, shield, sword, armour andpilum, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 metres. After the Second Punic War, the preferred weapon for the hastati andprincipes was thegladius, a short sword.[13] Their hobnailed sandals (caligae) were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. Heavy infantry was subdivided, according to experience, into three separate lines of troops:
Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually ten) chief tactical units calledmaniples. A maniple consisted of twocenturies and was commanded by the senior of the twocenturions. At this time, each century ofhastati andprincipes consisted of 60 men; a century oftriarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men.
Visual representation of the legion showing size and disposition for Infantry formations
Each century had its own standard and was made up of ten units (contubernia) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule andcooking pot.
Full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on theprincipes: armed with two heavy javelins calledpila (singularpilum), the short sword calledgladius, chain mail (lorica hamata), helmet and rectangular shield (scutum).
The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, calledauxilia.Auxilia containedimmunes (specialist units), engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry,light infantry orvelites, and labourers. There was also areconnaissancesquad of ten or more lightmounted infantry calledspeculatores, who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form ofmilitary intelligence service.
A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign;Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.
Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training of the soldiers.
Throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under ademagogue was recognised.Roman governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. WhenJulius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated aconstitutional crisis. This crisis and thecivil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of theEmpire underAugustus in 27 BC.
Map of Roman legions by 14 ADRoman Empire and legions in 125 AD near its maximum extent
Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence ofGemina (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organisation (and was later made official and put under alegatus and sixduces). At the end of the civil war againstMark Antony, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after theBattle of Teutoburg Forest, in which three legions were completely destroyed by theGermanics).
Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created thePraetorian Guard along with a permanentRoman navy where served theliberti, or freed slaves.The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanentcastra legionaria (legionary fortresses).
Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the philosopherFavorinus thatIt is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during thePax Romana probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperorSeverus, 193–211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a moderndivision.
Throughout the Imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for ausurper or take it away. For example, the defeat ofVitellius in theYear of the Four Emperors was decided when theDanubian legions chose to supportVespasian.
In the Empire, the legion was standardised, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by alegatus orlegate. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six electedmilitary tribunes – five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, thepraefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.
In theLater Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and theRoman army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before theTetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elitelegiones palatinae created byDiocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old legions. The earliestlegiones palatinae were theLanciarii,Joviani,Herculiani andDivitenses.[citation needed]
The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began underConstantine II. In addition to the elitepalatini, other legions calledcomitatenses andpseudocomitatenses, along with theauxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. TheNotitia Dignitatum lists 25legiones palatinae, 70legiones comitatenses, 47legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47legiones in the frontier armies.[15] Legion names such asHonoriani andGratianenses found in theNotitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed fromvexillationes or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Easternlimitanei and 181 in the Westernlimitanei.[16] A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army wasLegion V Macedonica; created in 43 BC, recorded in theNotitia Dignitatum as alegione comitatense under the title ofQuinta Macedonica and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.[17]
According to the late Roman writerVegetius'De re militari, each century had aballista and each cohort had anonager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 ballistae and 10 onagers, each manned by 10libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, asfield artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.
Despite a number of organisational changes, the legion system survived thefall of the Western Roman Empire. It was continued within theEastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by EmperorHeraclius to supply the increasing need for soldiers resulted in theTheme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.
Aside from the rank and filelegionary (who received the base wage of 10assēs a day or 225denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the late republic (100s BC) until the military reforms ofDiocletian (c. 290).
Legatus Augusti pro praetore (imperial legate): the commander of two or more legions. The imperial legate also served as thegovernor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Ofsenatorial rank, the imperial legate was appointed by the emperor and usually held command for 3 or 5 years.
Legatus legionis (legionary legate): the overall commander of the legion. The post was usually filled by asenator, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In aRoman province with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincialgovernor. In such circumstances, the legatus was dual-hatted as both legionary legate and imperial legate. The legionary legate also served as commander of theauxiliary units attached to the legion, though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure.
Tribunus laticlavius (broad-band tribune): named for the broad-striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the emperor or the senate. Though generally young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii. He served as second-in-command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his age and inexperience, he was not the actual second-in-command in battle. But if the legate died, he would take command of the legion.
Praefectus castrorum (camp prefect): the camp prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally, he was a long-serving veteran from a lower social status than thetribunii whom he outranked, and who previously had served asprimus pilus and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a cohort ofauxiliaries.
Tribuni angusticlavii (narrow-band tribunes): each legion had five lower-ranking tribunes, who were normally from the equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military experience. They often served the role of administrative officers.[18] This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career (seecursus honorum).[19]
The rank ofcenturion was an officer grade that held much responsibility. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as theprimus pilus (lit. "firstmaniple"[20]), who directly commanded the first century of the firstcohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as apilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as aprimi ordines.
There is a story of one centurion, Petronius Fortunatus, making rank in four years, then spending the next forty-two years in twelve different legions never once serving in theprimi ordines.[21]
The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence:
The rear triarii (rear third line)
The forward triarii (forward third line)
The rear principes (rear principal line)
The forward principes (forward principal line)
The rear hastati (rear spears)
The forward hastati (forward spears)
The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier (each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal). Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century.
Primus pilus: theprimus pilus was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear" and a "back spear" century.) Theprimus pilus had a chance of later becoming apraefectus castrorum. When theprimus pilus retired, he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid 60 times the base wage.Primus pilus were also paid more than an average centurion and like a narrowband tribune.
Pilus prior: the "front file" centurions were the commanders of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation, thepilus prior was given command of their entire cohort. Theprimus pilus was also apilus prior, and the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to theprimus pilus.
Primi ordines: the "ranks of the first [cohort]" were the five centurions of the first cohort, and included theprimus pilus. They, excluding theprimus pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other centurions, save theprimus pilus andpilus prior.
Other centurions: each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the ten cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and theprimus pilus). The century that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank: command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the 6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic wage.
The Roman army maintained a complex position and grading system for its soldiers that reflected the many and varied duties of the Roman army. There were three pay grades within the rank of legionary: standard, one and a half, and twice the basic pay rate.
Optio: one for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were graded pay twice the basic wage.
Tesserarius (guard commander): one for each century. They acted as seconds to theoptios and were graded pay one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were attached to was not in the vanguard.
Decurion: commanded a cavalry unit (turma) of 10 to 30eques legionis.[22]
Decanus: commanded acontubernium or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as aquaternion.
Aquilifer: a single position within the legion. Theaquilifer was the legion'sstandard – oraquila (eagle) – bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing theaquila was considered the greatest dishonor a legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the legion. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
Signifer: each century had asignifer (thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within eachcohort the 1st century'ssignifer would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for thecenturial signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In addition to carrying thesignum, thesignifer also assumed responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
Cornicen ("horn blower"): worked hand in hand with thesignifer drawing the attention of the men to the centurialsignum and issuing the audible commands of the officers. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
Imaginifer: a special position from the time ofAugustus onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
Immunes:immunes were legionary soldiers who possessed specialised skills, qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks,quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff andmilitary police were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines when needed.
Evocatus: a veteran of the Roman army who had earned hismilitary diploma for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour.
Legionaries received 225denarii a year (equal to 900sestertii) untilDomitian, who increased it to 300denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time ofSeptimius Severus, who increased it to 500denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from theprisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.
All legionary soldiers would also receive apraemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000denarii from the time ofAugustus) and/or a plot of goodfarmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, underCaracalla, thepraemia increased to 5,000denarii.
From 104 BC onwards, each legion used anaquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known asaquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.[24]
InGallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of thetenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.
With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, calledimaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with theimago (image, sculpture) of the emperor aspontifex maximus.
Each legion, furthermore, had avexillifer who carried avexillum orsignum, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only thevexillum, and not theaquila, and were called, therefore,vexillationes. A miniaturevexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.
Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige.
Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff oranimadversio fustium (Tac. Annals I, 23)
Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
Pecuniaria mulcta – reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance
Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
Whipping with theflagrum (flagellum,flagella), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers,volones, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
Fustuarium – a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty, stealing, false witness, sexual misconduct and repeating three times a same offense. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death bycudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence offustuarium who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome. In the event that a group of legionaries are to be subjected to this punishment, thetribune would make an alteration in order to spare the majority of the accused. The tribune would first select a handful of the guilty men, and those selected would be condemned to the original penalty under thefustuarium. The remainder of the accused would then be driven out of the camp and forced to live in an undefended location for a chosen period of time; they were also limited to eating only barley.[25]
Decimation – according to 17th century belief[26][failed verification] (possibly folk etymology[citation needed]), the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, thesacramentum.[citation needed]
Montesquieu wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones".[27]
Roman organisation was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare.
Roman discipline (cf.decimation), organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns againstPyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this.
Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.[citation needed]
Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise.
Roman military equipment (cf.Roman military personal equipment), particularly armor, was of better quality and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.
Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf.sudis,castra), was another major advantage for the Roman legions.
Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash.
^Data in: Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. pp. 95–95; Holder, Paul (1980). Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army. pp. 86–96; Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman empire. pp 123. See table in article "Auxiliaries (Roman military)" for compilation of this data.
^Mccall, Jeremiah B.The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic. (New York, Routledge, 2002) pp. 53ff
