Theroe deer (Capreolus capreolus), also known as theroe,western roe deer,[3][4] orEuropean roe,[3] is a species ofdeer. The male of the species is sometimes referred to as aroebuck. The roe is a small deer, reddish and grey-brown, and well-adapted to cold environments. The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, from Scotland to theCaucasus, and east as far as northern Iran.
In the English language, this deer was originally simply called a 'roe', but over time the word 'roe' has become a qualifier, and it is now usually called 'roe deer'.[9]
TheKoiné Greek nameπύγαργος, transliterated 'pygargos', mentioned in theSeptuagint and the works of various writers such asHesychius,Herodotus and laterPliny,[10] was originally thought to refer to this species (in many European translations of the Bible), although it is now more often believed to refer to theaddax. It is derived from the wordspyge (buttocks) andargo (white).
The taxonomic nameCapreolus is derived fromcapra orcaprea, meaning 'billy goat', with the diminutive suffix -olus. The meaning of this word inLatin is not entirely clear: it may have meant 'ibex' or 'chamois'.[11] The roe was also known ascapraginus orcapruginus in Latin.[12]
Linnaeus firstdescribed the roe deer in the modern taxonomic system asCervus capreolus in 1758.[2][3] The initiallymonotypic genusCapreolus was first proposed byJohn Edward Gray in 1821, although he did not provide a proper description for thistaxon.[13] Gray was not actually the first to use the nameCapreolus, it has been used by other authors before him. Nonetheless, his publication is seen as taxonomically acceptable.[9] He was generally ignored until the 20th century, most 19th-century works having continued to follow Linnaeus.
Roe deer populations gradually become somewhat larger as one moves further to the east, peaking in Kazakhstan, then becoming smaller again towards the Pacific Ocean. The Soviet mammalogistVladimir Sokolov had recognised this as a separate species from 1985 already usingelectrophoreticchromatography to show differences in the fractional protein content of the body tissues.[14][15] Fawns, females and males make different noises between species.[16] Alexander S. Graphodatsky looked at thekaryotypy to present more evidence to recognise these Russian and Asian populations as a separate species, now renamed the eastern orSiberian roe deer (C. pygargus).[17][18]
This new taxonomic interpretation (circumscription) was first followed in the American bookMammal Species of the World in 1993.[19] Populations of the roe deer from east of theKhopyor River andDon River to Korea are considered to be this species.[20]
C. c. caucasicusNikolay Yakovlevich Dinnik, 1910 - A large subspecies found in the region to the north of theCaucasus Mountains; althoughMammal Species of the World appears to recognise the taxon, this work bases itself on a chapter by Listeret al. in the 1998 bookThe European roe deer: the biology of success, which only recognises the name as provisional.[9]
C. c. italicusEnrico Festa, 1925 - Italy
This is just one (extreme) interpretation among a number of them. Two main specialists did not recognise these taxa and considered the species to be without subspecies in 2001.[22] The European Union'sFauna Europaea recognised in 2005 two subspecies, but besides thenominate form recognises the Spanish population as theendemicC. c. gargantaMeunier, 1983.[23][24]
Roe deer are most closely related to thewater deer, and, counter-intuitively, the three species in this group, called the Capreolini, are most closely related tomoose andreindeer.[25]
Although roe deer were once classified as belonging to the Cervinaesubfamily, they are now classified as part of theCapreolinae, which includes the deer that developed in the New World.[22]
Both the European roe deer andSiberian roe deer have seen their populations increase, both around the 1930s. In recent times, since the 1960s,[22] the two species have becomesympatric where their distributions meet, and there is now a broad 'hybridization zone' running from the right side of the Volga River up to eastern Poland. It is extremely difficult for hunters to know which species they have bagged.[26] In line withHaldane's rule, female hybrids of the twotaxa are fertile, while male hybrids are not.[24][27] Hybrids are much larger than normal and aCesarean section was sometimes needed to birth the fawns, becoming larger than their mothers at the age of 4–5 months. F1 hybrid males may be sterile, but backcrosses with the females are possible.[27]
22% of the animals around Moscow carry the mtDNA of the European roe deer and 78% of the Siberian. In the Volgograd region, the European roe deer predominates.[26] In the regions of Stavropol (Russia) and Dnipropetrovsk (Ukraine), most of the deer are Siberian roe deer.[26][28] In northeastern Poland there is also evidence ofintrogression with the Siberian roe deer, which was likely anIntroduced species.[29] In some cases, such as around Moscow, former introductions of European stock is likely responsible.[26]
Roe deer in a grassland areaYoung roe deerRoe deer antlerMoulting roe buck with freshly rubbed antlers
The roe deer is a relatively small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm (3 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in) throughout its range, and a shoulder height of 63–67 cm (2 ft 1 in – 2 ft 2 in), and a weight of 15–35 kg (35–75 lb).[30] Populations fromUrals and northernKazakhstan are larger on average growing to 145 cm (4 ft 9 in) in length and 85 cm (2 ft 9 in) at shoulder height, with body weights of up to 60 kg (130 lb), with the populations becoming smaller again further east in theTransbaikal,Amur Oblast, andPrimorsky Krai regions.[citation needed] In healthy populations, where population density is restricted by hunting or predators, bucks are slightly larger than does. Under other conditions, males can be similar in size to females, or slightly smaller.[30]
Bucks in good conditions develop antlers up to 20–25 cm (8–10 in) long with two or three, rarely even four, points. When the male's antlers begin to regrow, they are covered in a thin layer ofvelvet-like fur which they shed later on after the hair's blood supply is lost. Males may speed up the process by rubbing their antlers on trees, so that their antlers are hard and stiff for the duels during the mating season. Unlike most cervids, roe deer begin regrowing antlers almost immediately after they are shed.[citation needed] In rare cases, some bucks possess only a single antler branch, the result of a genetic defect.[31][32]
The roe deer is found in most areas of Europe, with the exception of northernmostScandinavia,[33] Iceland, Ireland, and the islands of theMediterranean Sea.[23] In the Mediterranean region, it is largely confined to mountainous areas, and is absent or rare at low altitudes.[citation needed] There is an earlyNeolithic fossil record fromJordan.[21]
InFlanders the roe deer was mostly confined to the hilly regions in the east, but like in neighbouring countries the population has expanded in recent times. A theory is that the expansion of maize cultivation, which are higher than traditional crops and afford more shelter, has aided their expansion to the west.[34]
In England and Wales, roe deer have experienced a substantial expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century.[35] This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems.[36] At the start of the 20th century, they were almost extirpated inSouthern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range, mostly due to restrictions and decrease in hunting, increases in forests and reductions inarable farming, changes in agriculture (more winter cereal crops), a massive reduction inextensivelivestock husbandry, and a general warming climate over the past 200 years. Furthermore, there are no large predators in Britain.[37][38] In some cases, roe deer have been introduced with human help. In 1884 roe deer were introduced fromWürttemberg in Germany into theThetford Forest, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. In southern England, they started their expansion in Sussex (possibly from enclosed stock inPetworth Park) and from there soon spread into Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorset, and for the first half of the 20th century, most roe deer in Southern England were to be found in these counties. By the end of the 20th century, they had repopulated much of southern England and had expanded into Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Lincolnshire and South Yorkshire, and had even spread into Wales from the Ludlow area where an isolated population had appeared. At the same time, the surviving population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire and Humberside.[39]
In the 1970s, the species was still completely absent from Wales.[36] Roe deer can now be found in most of rural England except for southeast Kent and parts of Wales; anywhere in the UK mainland suitable for roe deer may have a population.[36] Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe deer are now a feature of several cities, notablyGlasgow andBristol, where in particular they favour cemeteries.[citation needed] In Wales, they are least common, but they are reasonably well established in Powys and Monmouthshire.[36]
Scottish roe deer were introduced to theLissadell Estate in County Sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth.[42] The Lissadell roe deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that general area for about 50 years before they died out. According to the National Biodiversity Data Centre, in 2014 there was a confirmed sighting of roe deer in County Armagh. There have been other, unconfirmed, sightings in County Wicklow.[43][44]
In the Netherlands, roe deer were extirpated from the entirety of the country except for two small areas around 1875. As new forests were planted in the country in the 20th century, the population began to expand rapidly. Although it was a protected species in 1950, the population is no longer considered threatened and it has lost legal protection. As of 2016 there are some 110,000 roe deer in the country. The population is primarily kept in check through the efforts of hunters.[45]
In 1991, a breeding colony of 27 roe deer coming from France, Hungary and Italy were brought in the Hai-Bar Carmel Reserve.[46] A small number of this roe deer population has been reintroduced to theCarmel Mountains from theCarmel Hai-Bar Nature Reserve, with the first deer being released in 1996.[47] 24 to 29 animals had been released by 2006.[46] Some of the reintroduced animals were hand-reared and could be monitored by their responses to their keeper calls.[46][48]
Ultrasonography of the uterine pregnancy of a roe deer in Bulgaria
This species is found across multiple habitats, including open agricultural areas and above the tree line, but a requisite factor is access to food and cover. It retreats to dense woodland, especially among conifers, or bramble scrub when it must rest, but it is very opportunistic and a hedgerow may be good enough. Roe deer in the southern Czech Republic live in almost completely open agricultural land.[30] The animal is more likely to be spotted in places with nearby forests to retreat to.[49] Apioneer species commonly associated withbiotic communities at an early stage ofsuccession, during theNeolithic period in Europe when farming humans began to colonise the continent from the Middle East, the roe deer was abundant, taking advantage of areas of forest or woodland cleared by Neolithic farmers.[50]
In order to mitigate risk, roe deer remain withinrefuge habitats (such as forests) during the day. They are likelier to venture into more open habitats at night and duringcrepuscular periods when there is less ambient activity.[49] It scrapes leaf litter off the ground to make a 'bed'.[30]
When alarmed it will bark a sound much like a dog and flash out its white rump patch. Rump patches differ between the sexes, with the white rump patches heart-shaped on females and kidney-shaped on males. Males may also bark or make a low grunting noise. Does (the females) make a high-pitched "pheep" whine to attract males during therut (breeding season) in July and August. Initially the female goes looking for a mate and commonly lures the buck back into her territory before mating.[citation needed] The roe deer is territorial, and while the territories of a male and a female might overlap, other roe deer of the same sex are excluded unless they are the doe's offspring of that year.[30]
It feeds mainly on grass, leaves, berries, and young shoots. It particularly likes very young, tender grass with a high moisture content, i.e., grass that has received rain the day before. Roe deer will generally not venture into a field that has or has had livestock in it.[50]
Thepolygamous roe deer males clash over territory in early summer and mate in early autumn. During courtship, when the males chase the females, they often flatten the underbrush, leaving behind areas of the forest in the shape of a circle or figure eight called 'roe rings'. These tend to be 1–3 m (3.3–9.8 ft) in diameter.[51] In 1956 it was speculated based on some field evidence that they choose where to form rings around plants with ergot mould, but this has not been substantiated further.[52] Males may also use their antlers to shovel around fallen foliage and soil as a way of attracting a mate. Roebucks enter ruttinginappetence during the July and August breeding season. Females aremonoestrous and afterdelayed implantation usually give birth the following June, after a 10-month gestation period, typically to two spotted fawns of opposite sexes,[53] weighing 0.8–2.5 kg (1.8–5.5 lb).[54] The fawns remain hidden in long grass from predators; they are suckled by their mother several times a day for around three months. Young female roe deer can begin to reproduce when they are around six months old.[citation needed] During the mating season, a male roe deer may mount the same doe several times over a duration of several hours.[55]
A roe deer can live up to 20 years, but it usually does not reach such an age. A normal life span in the wild is seven to eight years,[30] or ten years.[56]
The roe deer population showsirruptive growth. It is extremely fecund and can double its population every year;[56] it shows a retarded reaction to population density with females continuing to have a similar fecundity at high population densities.
Population structure is modified by available nutrition, where populations are irrupting there are few animals over six years old. Where populations are stagnant or moribund, there is huge fawn mortality and a large part of the population is over seven years old. Mortality is highest in the first weeks after birth due to predation, or sometimes farm machinery; or in the first winter due to starvation or disease, with up to 90% mortality.[30]
The roe deer is agame animal of great economic value in Europe, providing large amounts of meat and earning millions of euros in sport hunting. In 1998, some 2,500,000 roe deer were shot per year in Western Europe.[56] In Germany alone, 700,000 were shot a year in the 1990s.[30] This is insufficient to slow down the population growth, and the roe deer continues to increase in number.[56]
It is the main source ofvenison in Europe.[30] The meat, like most game meat, is darker in colour than that of most farm-raised deer.[58]
Roe deer are thought to have evolved from a species in the Eurasian genusProcapreolus, with some 10 species occurring from theLate Miocene to theEarly Pleistocene, which moved from the east to Central Europe over the millennia, whereProcapreolus cusanus (also classified asCapreolus cusanus) occurred.[25][59] It may not have evolved fromC. cusanus, however, because the two extant species split from each other 1.375 and 2.75 Myr ago,[60] and the western species first appeared in Europe 600 thousand years ago.[24]
As of 2008, over 3,000 fossil specimens of this species had been recovered from Europe, which affords a good set of data to elucidate the prehistoric distribution. The distribution of the European species has fluctuated often since entering Europe. During some periods of thelast ice age, it was present in central Europe, but during theLast Glacial Maximum it retreated torefugia in theIberian Peninsula (two refugia here), southern France, Italy (likely two), theBalkans and theCarpathians. When the last Ice Age ended, the species initially abruptly expanded north of theAlps to Germany during theGreenland Interstadial, 12.5–10.8 thousand years ago, but during the cooling of theYounger Dryas, 10.8–10 thousand years ago, it appears to have disappeared again from this region. It reappeared 9.7–9.5 thousand years ago, reaching northern central Europe. The modern population in this area appears to have recolonised it from the Carpathians and/or further east, but not the Balkans or other refugia. This is opposite to thered deer, which recolonised Europe from Iberia. There has been much admixture of these populations where they meet, also possibly due to human intervention in some cases.[24]
It is thought that during theMiddle Ages the roe deer and Siberian roe deer were kept apart due to hunting pressure and an abundance of predators; the two species may have encountered each other in the period just prior, though during thePleistocene they were also kept apart.[22]
In the Hebrew BibleDeuteronomy 14:5, theיַחְמ֑וּר,yahmur, derived from 'to be red', is listed as the third species of animal that may be eaten. In most Bibles this word has usually been translated as 'roe deer', and it still means as much inArabic (أحمر, pronounced 'ahmar) -it was still said to be a common species in theMount Carmel area in the 19th century. TheKing James Bible translated the word as 'fallow deer', and in other English Bible translations the word has been translated as a number of different species.[61][62][63][64][65]
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