Settled in the mid-1830s as Midway, Rockford became strategic for industrial development, stemming from its location roughly equidistant betweenLake Michigan and theMississippi River. During the second half of the 19th century, it became notable for its production of heavy machinery, hardware, and tools. At the beginning of the 20th century, the city was the second leading center of furniture manufacturing in the U.S. During the second half of the 20th century, Rockford struggled alongside manyRust Belt cities to maintain its previous industrial presence. Since the late 1990s, efforts in economic diversification have led to the growth of automotive, aerospace, and healthcare industries, as well as the undertaking of various tourism and downtown revitalization efforts.
Rockford traces its roots to 1834, as the combined settlements of Midway were founded on both banks of the Rock River. On the west bank, Germanicus Kent and Thatcher Blake (with his slave Lewis Lemon) founded Kentville; the east bank was settled by Daniel Shaw Haight. With the location of the Rock River equidistant between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River, the combined settlement derived the name "Midway".[12][13] In 1836, Winnebago County was created (from bothJo Daviess andLaSalle counties), with Midway named as its county seat, as it was "halfway between Galena and Chicago on a line of four-horse coaches."[14]
In 1837, the village of Midway was renamed Rockford, highlighting a rockyriver ford across the Rock River in the village.[15] In the same year, Rockford established its first post office, with Daniel Shaw Haight as the first postmaster. In 1840, the first weekly newspaper began circulation. In 1847, Rockford Female Seminary – todayRockford University – was founded. On January 3, 1852, Rockford was officially chartered as a city;[5][16] a year later the long-running "Forest City" nickname first appeared, used by theNew York Tribune. Also in 1852, theGalena and Chicago Union Railroad connected Rockford to Chicago by railroad.
At the time of its founding, many of the village's residents were transplants from theNortheastern United States andupstate New York.[17] Descended from English Puritans, the Midway/Rockford population was similar to much of the rest of northern Illinois and nearly all of Wisconsin during the mid-19th century. After theBlack Hawk War, additional immigrants moved to northern Illinois; during the 1830s and 1840s, Rockford and Winnebago County were considered a cultural extension of New England.[18]
During the antebellum period, Rockford shared abolitionist leanings, lending considerable support to theFree Soil Party and the laterRepublican Party. In 1848, 42 percent of voters in Winnebago County (where Rockford dominated as the county seat) voted forMartin Van Buren. In 1852, Free Soil candidateJohn P. Hale became the first presidential candidate to visit Rockford, although he would only receive 28 percent of the vote. In 1860,Abraham Lincoln won 3,985 votes in Winnebago County to the 817 votes ofStephen A. Douglas.[19]
The 1850s brought industry that would change Rockford forever. In 1853, inventorJohn Henry Manny moved to Rockford to produce horse-drawn mechanicalreapers for farmers and transport the finished products by rail. Chicago implement manufacturerCyrus McCormick (whose company becameInternational Harvester) took Manny to court after he produced nearly 6,000 machines; Manny would prevail on both judgement and an appeal. Along with the production of agricultural machines, Swedish furniture cooperatives established the city as a manufacturing base. The Rockford Union Furniture Company, underJohn Erlander, spearheaded these cooperatives. Today, Erlander's home is a Rockford museum that shows his efforts in elevating Rockford to second in furniture manufacturing in the United States, behindGrand Rapids.[20]
During theCivil War, one of the first Illinois regiments to be mobilized, the Zouaves, were from Rockford. The city also served as the site for Camp Fuller, a training site for four other infantry regiments.
Digital remake of the flag Carried by the Zouaves during the Civil War[21]
In 1884, Rockford established its first city-wide public school district, constructingRockford Central High School in 1885; following the construction of the high school, the district began construction of brick multi-story multigrade school buildings across the city.
The Rockford Female Seminary became the alma mater ofJane Addams in 1881. The move accompanied the Seminary's transition into a more complete curriculum, which was represented by its renaming to Rockford College in 1892. Culture flourished with the founding of the Mendelssohn Club in 1884, which became the oldest operating music club in the United States. It was complemented by the construction of aCarnegie library in 1902, which became the first building of Rockford's public library system. 1903 saw the dedication of theWinnebago County Veterans Memorial Hall in the presence of sitting PresidentTheodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt returned to Rockford during hiscampaign in 1912 and again to address the soldiers atCamp Grant, a training site forWorld War I soldiers.
John F. Kennedy campaigning and driving through State Street in downtown Rockford, 1960Rockford in 1936
The twentieth century saw demographic changes to Rockford. An influx of Italians, Poles, Lithuanians, and African Americans replaced the previously dominant Irish and Swedes. The city was also no stranger to contemporary political issues. Electorally divided between wets and drys on the subject ofprohibition, Rockford featured a coalition of labor unionists and socialists that elected numerous aldermen and carried 25 to 40 percent in mayoral elections. During World War I, an antiwar protest by theIndustrial Workers of the World led to 118 arrests. In 1920, the city was a target of thePalmer Raids. While its congressional district favored Republicans, Rockford continuously elected former socialists as mayor between 1921 and 1955.
One of its contemporary attractions, theCoronado Theatre, opened in 1927. Noted for itsatmospheric styling, the Coronado rivaled its counterparts in Chicago and was added to theNational Register of Historic Places in 1979.[22] Camp Grant was turned over to the Illinois National Guard. During World War II, it reopened as an induction center and POW detention camp. TheUSSRockford, aTacoma-class frigate named for the city, was commissioned in March 1944 and earned two service stars.
In the September 1949 issue ofLife magazine, postwar Rockford was described as "nearly typical of the U.S. as any city can be." Due to this archetypal nature, sociologists likeW. Lloyd Warner warned of the necessity to "understand the realities of their system."[23] In the late 1950s, Rockford lost over 50,000 trees toDutch elm disease, thinning the tree canopy of the "Forest City" for decades.[24]
From 1955 to 1965, several events would take place that would shape the development of Rockford into the 21st century. In 1956, construction was approved for a four-lane US 20 bypass;[25] along with shifting truck traffic away from the downtown routing of the highway, the bypass established much of the southern border of the city (which remains to this day). In 1958, Interstate 90 was completed in Illinois, becoming the Northwest Tollway;[25][26] in a decision that would change Rockford forever, the interstate highway was not routed through the city, but near the Winnebago-Boone county line, with the eastern terminus of the US 20 bypass in Cherry Valley.
In 1963, the Rockford area was selected by Chrysler Corporation to construct an assembly plant; the final site of what is now theBelvidere Assembly Plant is southwest of Belvidere, between US 20 and Interstate 90.[25] While not located directly in the city, the Chrysler assembly plant has served as one of the largest employers of the region since its 1965 opening.
The growth of Rockford led to many changes to its educational systems. In 1955, Rockford College – nowRockford University – became co-educational for the first time. Coinciding with the expansion of the student body, the college outgrew its near-east side campus in use since the 1840s. After the acquisition of land in 1957, construction began on its present-day campus location, opening in 1964.[25] In 1964,Rock Valley College was founded as a two-year community college, with construction on its campus commencing in 1965.[25]
Prior to the 1960s, neighborhood and economic growth in Rockford largely mirrored itself on both sides of the Rock River. As the 20th century progressed, growth in western Rockford (and established neighborhoods in eastern areas of the city) struggled to compete with economic development that moved further east. From the late 1950s, downtown Rockford (centered around the intersection of IL 2 and US 20; Main Street and West State Street) began to decline as the primary shopping district of the city. In 1956, North Towne Mall opened on the far northwest side of the city, with Colonial Village opening on the (then) far east side in 1962, both of which were partially enclosed (some stores had exterior entrances).[27] In 1973,Cherryvale Mall was opened as the first fully enclosed shopping mall in the city; nearly 6 miles from the city center, the mall was located at the intersection of the US-20 bypass and the Northwest Tollway, sharing a city border with Cherry Valley.
While growth at the eastern end of Rockford undersaw favorable conditions for growth, established neighborhoods began to suffer irrevocable decline.[28] In the 1970s, efforts commenced to revitalize downtown Rockford, once the primary shopping district. In a highly criticized decision, the city reconfigured several blocks of downtown into apedestrian mall, closing off the Main Street/West State Street intersection to traffic.[29] In 1975, what the local press characterized as one of the most well-known and haunting crimes[30] took place when newspaper delivery boy Joey Didier was kidnapped and murdered by Robert Lower. In the late 1970s,Symbol, a 47-foot tallAlexander Liberman abstract sculpture was placed in the center of the pedestrian mall.[31] In 1980, then CongressmanJohn B. Anderson, representing the 16th Congressional District in Illinois which includes Rockford, ran for President of the United States. Further attracting commercial growth, theMetroCentre 10,000-seat multi-purpose arena, was opened in 1981.
Rockford was hit hard by theearly 1980s recession and became one of the highest-unemployed cities in the United States. In 1981, rail service to the city ended asAmtrak ended the Dubuque-to-ChicagoBlack Hawk route.[32] After struggling to compete with more modern facilities, the Coronado Theatre showed its last movie in 1984, shifting solely to stage performances.[33] To expand passenger service, the Greater Rockford Airport rebuilt its passenger terminal in 1987, although the access of Rockford to the Northwest Tollway (to the much larger O'Hare Airport) became a popular alternative.
In a decision that continues to affect Rockford to the present day, in 1989, Rockford Public School District 205 closed several schools across the city in a cost-cutting decision. In the aftermath of the decision, the school district was found guilty in federal court of discrimination against minority students.[34][35] From 1993 to 2001, the school district was under federal oversight to desegregate its schools, costing over $250 million.[34][35]
During the 2000s, a movement began to reverse urban blight of downtown Rockford, which had begun in the 1960s. After an 18-month multi-million dollar renovation and expansion, the Coronado Theatre was reopened in 2001.[33] In 2008, the MetroCentre downtown arena completed a $20 million renovation (renamed theBMO Harris Bank Center in 2011).[36][37] In 2009, the downtown pedestrian mall was removed as part of a street refurbishment project, restoring Main Street (Illinois Route 2) to two-lane traffic for the first time in nearly 45 years.[29]
Prior to the onset of theGreat Recession, housing in Rockford was affected by catastrophic weather events. In 2006 and 2007, Keith Creek underwent100-year flooding events, damaging hundreds of older homes on the near east side of the city. In response, the city securedFEMA grants, demolishing over 100 homes; to reduce the severity of future flooding events, the creek is being reconstructed (through 2019) and left as greenspace.[38][39][40] As an effect of the recession, by 2013, thirty-two percent of mortgages in the city wereupside-down.[41] While remaining the largest city in Illinois outside Chicago and its suburbs, estimated population decline from 2010 to 2017 led Rockford to be overtaken by Joliet and Naperville (the latter, slightly), effectively making it the fifth-largest city in Illinois.[42]
From 2014 to 2018, the unemployment rate in Rockford has fallen from 12.9 percent to 4.4 percent (the lowest since 2000).[43][44] While predominately a manufacturing community since World War II, Rockford has struggled to diversify its industrial base. Shifting from agricultural machinery and furniture, manufacturing in the city remains dominated by fasteners, automotive suppliers (representing FCA Belvidere Assembly), and the aerospace industry (Woodward andCollins Aerospace; the latter, tracing its roots toSundstrand Corporation). In 2012, Woodward selected suburban Loves Park for a $200 million manufacturing campus toward its energy control and optimization systems.[45]Boeing included Rockford in a list of five finalists to manufacture the777X during union disputes in 2014.[46] In 2016,AAR Corporation opened aMRO facility at the Rockford airport with a hangar large enough to fit aBoeing 747-8.
During the 2010s, all three major health care providers in Rockford underwent major expansions of their facilities. SwedishAmerican, in partnership with theUniversity of Wisconsin Carbone Cancer Center, opened a $39 million Regional Cancer Center in 2013.[47] In 2014,MercyHealth (based inJanesville, Wisconsin) acquired Rockford Health System, the operator of Rockford Memorial Hospital. In 2019, MercyHealth opened Javon Bea Hospital-Riverside (named after the MercyHealth CEO and its Riverside Boulevard/Interstate 90 location); its second hospital in Rockford, the $505 million complex was the largest construction project in the history of the city.[48][49][50]
According to the 2010 census, Rockford has an area of 61.949 square miles (160.45 km2), of which 61.08 square miles (158.20 km2) (or 98.6%) is land and 0.869 square miles (2.25 km2) (or 1.4%) is water.[52] Located primarily inWinnebago County, a portion extends into neighboringOgle County.[53] Rockford is approximately 90 miles west-northwest of downtownChicago, and 70 miles south-southeast ofMadison.
TheRock River forms the traditional center of Rockford and is its most recognizable natural feature. One of its largest tributaries, theKishwaukee River, joins the Rock River at the southern end of the city near the Rockford airport. Since the 1946 closure of Camp Grant, much of the length of Kishwaukee has been redeveloped into parkland and forest preserves, effectively forming the southern border of the city. Other waterways that feed into the Rock River include Spring Creek (northeast region), Keith Creek (east region), and Kent Creek (west region). Of the 8 Illinois dams of the Rock River, the Fordham dam is located south of downtown.
Summers are usually hot and humid with the average high temperature in July (the hottest month) being 83.9 °F (28.8 °C).[54][55] The winter months can bring bitterly cold Arctic air masses. The average high temperature in January (the coldest month) is 29.1 °F (−1.6 °C).[54][55] June is Rockford's wettest month while January is the driest. During a typical year, Rockford receives 37.24 in (946 mm) of precipitation.[54][55]
Rockford and surrounding areas are prone to violentthunderstorms during March, April, May, and June. OnApril 21, 1967, a violentF4tornado struck the neighboring town ofBelvidere, killing twenty-four people and injuring hundreds more at Belvidere's High School. Other severe weather events, such ashail and strong winds are common in these storms. On July 5, 2003, at 04:13, a line of severe storms and their associated high winds caused widespread damage on both the east and west sides of Rockford.[56] Approximately 70,000 people were without power, with many on the west side suffering in the heat without electricity for a week. It took months to clear the damage, but because the storm struck so early in the morning there were no injuries or fatalities. However, these sometimes violent storms bring the majority of summer rainfall.
The city is also prone to severesnowstorms in winter, andblizzards are frequent winter occurrences. On January 13, 1979, over 9 inches (23 cm) of snow fell on Rockford in just a few hours during one of the strongest blizzards in the city's history. The city averages approximately 36 inches (91.4 cm) of snowfall in a normal winter, but greater amounts are common. The snowiest winter in the history of the city was the winter of 1978–1979, when 74.5 inches (189 cm) of snow fell.
Rockford city, Illinois – Racial and ethnic composition Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
This section'sfactual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. The reason given is: needs information from more recent 2020 census. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(April 2024)
The median income for a household in the city was $55,667, and the median income for a family was $65,465. Males had a median income of $37,098 versus $25,421 for females. Theper capita income for the city was $19,781. 14.0% of the population and 10.5% of families were below thepoverty line. 19.6% of those under the age of 18 and 8.0% of those 65 and older were living below thepoverty line.
In the late 1950s, Rockford surpassedPeoria as the second largest city in Illinois by population, holding onto that position into the 21st century. In 2003, the status was changed as it was overtaken byAurora after the results of a special census held by the latter city (as the two cities were not counted together, a direct comparison was not possible until the national census in 2010).
According to 2010 figures, 20% of Winnebago County residents were Catholic, 19% Evangelical, 10% Mainline Protestant and 48% belonged to another faith or had no religion.[65] TheRoman CatholicDiocese of Rockford, several large evangelical and non-denominational churches, and severalLutheran and otherMainline Protestant congregations serve Rockford's Christian community. Rockford'sJewish community is served by a synagogue, the Muslim community by a mosque, the Sikhs by a temple, and itsBuddhist community is served by two houses of worship.[66][67]
Compared toKatowice by writerLeopold Tyrmand, Rockford possesses a wealth of notable architecture. TheLake-Peterson House, constructed by alderman John Lake in 1873 and preserved by Swedish industrialist Pehr August Peterson, is a notable example ofGothic Revival. Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, it is used for the School of Medical Technology of the Rockford-basedSwedish American Hospital.[69]
Further Swedish influence on Rockford during theVictorian era is represented in the Erlander Home Museum, the base of the Swedish Historical Society. Swiss influence can be seen in theTinker Swiss Cottage, which was opened as a museum under the park district in 1943 and was featured in an episode ofGhost Hunters in 2012.[70][71]
Modern architectural movements, likeArt Deco andPrairie School, are also integral to Rockford. Most renowned is theCoronado Theatre, a civic and entertainment center named one of 150 Great Places in Illinois by theAmerican Institute of Architects. The theater is known for its blend of Art Deco with SpanishBaroque Revival and has hosted numerous performers over its lifetime, including theMarx Brothers,Frank Sinatra, andBob Dylan.[72][73] The 186-foot tallFaust Hotel complements the Coronado; constructed in 1929, it endures as Rockford's tallest building, albeit as apartments for the elderly and disabled. TheLaurent House, a single-storyUsonian home constructed in 1952 byFrank Lloyd Wright, is the only Wright building designed for a person with disabilities. Acquired by a private foundation from its commissioners, it was renovated into a museum in 2014.[74] The Rockford Area has two additional places named by the American Institute of Architects in the 150 Great Places, Anderson Japanese Gardens in Rockford, Illinois and Poplar Grove United Methodist Church in Poplar Grove, Illinois.
TheBurpee Museum of Natural History is home to the world's most complete juvenileTyrannosaurus rex,Jane, as well as aTriceratops, Homer. TheDiscovery Center Museum, a children's museum featuring over 250 hands-on exhibits including a planetarium.[76] The Burpee Museum and the Discovery Center Museum, along with the Rockford Art Museum and the bases forNorthern Public Radio, the Rockford Dance Company, and theRockford Symphony Orchestra make up the downtown Riverfront Museum Park complex. The last museum under the park district's authority isMidway Village and Museum Center, a recreation of a Victorian-era village. The eastern riverwalk of Rockford is maintained by the park district, featuring theNicholas Conservatory and Gardens. Located on the bank of the Rock River, the conservatory is the third-largest in the state of Illinois. Just north of the gardens isSymbol, anAlexander Liberman sculpture moved from downtown during the 1980s and now one of Rockford's most recognizable features.[77]
In 2021, artistRafael Blanco painted "Thinking of you Rockford" in Rockford, Illinois. The 22-foot by 77-foot piece[78] featured a young Black female dreaming alongside math and science illustrations.
Sinnissippi Rose Garden at the Nicholas Conservatory & Gardens, located alongside the Rock River.
TheRockford Park District serves Rockford and surrounding municipalities with 4,855 acres of parkland, 75 miles of paths and trails, and 82 playgrounds. Searls Park in Northwest Rockford contains a high quality remnantprairie registered as anIllinois Nature Preserve.[81] Paths in Rockford include the Mel Anderson Memorial path in Northwest Rockford, and the Rock River Rec Path on the east bank of the Rock River. Rockford Park District operates 2 outdoor pools in Rockford, Harkins Aquatic Center and Alpine Pool, and ownsSix Flags Hurricane Harbor Rockford, which is managed bySix Flags. The Rockford Park District also operates an ice rink, equestrian center, snow hill park, disk golf course in the city.[82]
There are five golf courses in the city limits and two more that directly border the city. The Rockford Park District operates 4 municipal golf courses, Aldeen Golf Club,[83] Ingersoll Golf Club, Sandy Hollow Golf Course, and Sinnissippi Golf Course. The Rockford Country Club is the only private golf course in city limits,[84] but The Mauh-Nah-Tee-See Country Club and Forest Hills Country Club directly border the city.
Davis Park is located in Downtown on the west bank of the Rock River, and is the only Park owned by the City of Rockford. As of 2025 the park is undergoing a 12 million dollar renovation to build an outdoor stage, skatepark, and accessible playground.[85]
Since the creation of Winnebago County in 1836, Rockford has served as its county seat. Rockford is the largestDillon's Rule municipality in Illinois, having revokedhome rule in 1983. Along with a mayor (elected every four years), the Rockford City Council consists of 14 alderman (elected every 4 years), with the city divided into 14 wards.
In a fashion similar to other cities its size (or larger), local government is split into executive and legislative branches. Themayor of Rockford is chosen in a general election every four years. The Rockford City Council consists of 14 aldermen, individually elected from each ward in the city.
Rockford is the 161st largestradio market in the United States.[90] It is ranked 136th byNielsen Media Research for the 2015-2016 television season with 170,140 television households.[91]
The area is served by over 15 commercial radio stations, over 5 non-commercial radio stations, 2low power FM radio stations, 5TV stations and 1 daily newspaper.
In April 2018, Rockford became included in theLimeBike bicycle-sharing network.[93] Using 500 commuter bicycles supplied by the company, residents rent bicycles through amobile app, unlocking the dockless bicycles.[94] Distinguished by their bright green color, LimeBikes are equipped with a basket, lights, and GPS (to locate them for rental); one-speed and three-speed units are in use.[94]
In early 2019, LimeBike was discontinued in Rockford; the company shifted its business model away from bicycles to e-scooters.
The first airport serving the Rockford area was Machesney Airport, located north of the city alongside US 51. Opened in 1927, the airport was initially a private airport; during World War II, it was utilized by the Army Air Corps. After the war, Machesney Airport was opened as a municipal airport. In 1974, the location was closed, becoming the site of theMachesney Park Mall in 1980.
AfterCamp Grant's final closure in 1946, the state legislature allowed for the establishment of an airport to serve Rockford, leading to the creation of the Greater Rockford Airport Authority (GRAA). In 1948, the GRAA received a 1500-acre portion of the Camp Grant property between US 51 and the Rock River, located between the southern border of the city andNew Milford.
From the 1950s to 1970s, the Greater Rockford Airport served as a regional airport, with small airlines offering both turboprop and jet service. To further expand passenger service, the current passenger terminal was constructed in 1987. Competing against easy highway access (and bus service) toO'Hare International Airport, the airport struggled for passenger service during the 1990s, leading to the loss of passenger service from 2001 to 2003. Since 2003, the airport has restored passenger service, primarily marketing its location for leisure travelers. Following the closure of several airlines, the location is served byAllegiant Air as its passenger carrier. Following a 2005 upgrade, the passenger terminal was expanded in size in 2018.
During the 2000s, the airport underwent several name changes, adopting the currentChicago Rockford International Airport moniker in 2007. Among the fastest-growing freight airports in the world, full-scale cargo operations began in 1994 asUnited Parcel Service (UPS) opened an air package hub at the airport next to the terminal. Second only toWorldport in theUPS Airlines operations, the Rockford UPS hub operates on a separate 50-acre ramp (parking up to 40 aircraft at a time), accommodating up to a Boeing 747-8F.
Next to the UPS facilities, another cargo ramp was built in 2008, intended to attract additional cargo airlines. In 2016, the facilities were leased byABX, intending to transfer freight from aircraft to trucks; the operations transitioned into flights forAmazon Air, who partners with ABX,ATI, andAtlas Air.[95][96] The same year,AAR Corporation opened anFBO facility on the southern end of the airport, building hangars large enough to accommodate anAirbus A380. In 2021, cargo operations were expanded further, as the airport constructed an additional cargo-handling facility and cargo ramp, introducing service by German air cargo company Senator International, contracting 747s byAir Atlanta Icelandic. In 2022,Korean Air Cargo introduced cargo service from Seoul to Rockford on 777-300 freighters, becoming the longest flight from the airport.
Freight rail remains active in the Rockford area, served byUnion Pacific, Canadian National,Canadian Pacific (viaIowa, Chicago and Eastern Railroad), andIllinois Railway. Passenger rail service has been absent from the Rockford region since 1981, when theAmtrakBlack Hawk route, a daily train service fromDubuque, Iowa, toChicago via Rockford, was discontinued due to funding cuts. Interest in restoring service grew in the 2000s, with a 2006 proposal to extendMetra service from Chicago suburbs.[97] In the early 2010s, design work began on aBlack Hawk revival onCanadian National rails, but funding was suspended in 2015 during Illinois' budget crisis.[98][99] Support returned in 2019 under GovernorJ.B. Pritzker, and in 2023, it was announced that Metra would extend itsMilwaukee District West Line to Rockford, with twice-daily service in each direction beginning in 2027.[100][101][102][103]
Lidköping andSkaraborg County inSweden have the Industrial Partnership Agreement with Rockford. The two regions work together with growing locally by working globally.[citation needed]
^Addams, J. (2004).My friend Julia Lathrop. New York: MacMillan.
^Bridget, French."All About Rockford, Illinois"(PDF).Rockford Area Convention & Visitors Bureau. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on September 4, 2015. RetrievedJune 27, 2014.
^History of Rockford and Winnebago County, Illinois: From the First Settlement in 1834 to the Civil War. p. 253.
^Lois imball Mathews.The Expansion of New England: The Spread of New England Settlement and Institutions to the Mississippi River, 1620-1865. pp. 210–212.
^History of Rockford and Winnebago County, Illinois: From the First Settlement in 1834 to the Civil War. p. 379.
^Lundin, Jon W. (1989).Rockford, An Illustrated History. Windsor Publications. p. 8.
Hillary, Michael Lee. Religion, immigrant churches, and community in an industrializing city: Swedish Protestants in Rockford, Illinois, 1854–1925 (PhD dissertation, Columbia University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2005. 3151265).
Sutrina, Katie. "The 'Rosies' of Rockford: Working Women in Two Rockford Companies in the Depression and World War II Eras,"Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 102 (Fall–Winter 2009), 402–28.
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