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Rhyming slang is a form of slang word construction in theEnglish language. It is especially prevalent amongCockneys in England, and was first used in the early 19th century in theEast End of London; hence its alternative name,Cockney rhyming slang.^[2][3] In the United States, especially in thecriminal underworld of theWest Coast between 1880 and 1920, rhyming slang has sometimes been known asAustralian slang.^[4][5][6]

The construction of rhyming slang involves replacing a common word with a phrase of two or more words, the last of which rhymes with the original word; then, in almost all cases, omitting, from the end of the phrase, the secondary rhyming word (which is thereafter implied),^{[7][page needed][8][page needed]} making the origin and meaning of the phrase elusive to listeners not in the know.^{[9][page needed]}

The form ofCockney slang is made clear with the following example. The rhyming phraseapples and pears is used to mean'stairs'. Following the pattern of omission, "and pears" is dropped, thus the spoken phrase "I'm going up the apples" means "I'm going up the stairs".^[10]

The following are further common examples of these phrases:^[10][11][12]

In some cases the meaning is further obscured by additional iterations of rhyme. For example,Aris andplaster are double and triple rhymes of'arse' respectively. First,arse was rhymed withbottle and glass, shortened tobottle. Next,bottle was rhymed withAristotle and truncated toAris. ThusAris emerged as a double rhyme of'arse'.Aris was then itself further rhymed withplaster of Paris, producingplaster as a triple rhyme of'arse'.^[14]

Ghil'ad Zuckermann, alinguist andrevivalist, has proposed a distinction between rhyming slang based on sound only, and phono-semantic rhyming slang, which includes a semantic link between the slang expression and itsreferent (the thing it refers to).^[15]: 29 An example of rhyming slang based only on sound is the Cockneytea leaf'thief'.^[15]: 29 An example ofphono-semantic rhyming slang is the Cockneysorrowful tale'jail',^[15]: 30 in which case the person coining the slang term sees a semantic link, sometimes jocular, between the Cockney expression and its referent.^[15]: 30

The use of rhyming slang has spread beyond the purely dialectal and some examples are to be found in the mainstream British English lexicon, although many users may be unaware of the origin of those words.^[10]

• The expression "blowing a raspberry" comes fromraspberry tart for'fart'.^[2]
• Another example isberk, a mild pejorative widely used across the UK and not usually considered particularly offensive, although the origin lies in a contraction of "Berkeley Hunt", as the rhyme for the significantly more offensive'cunt'.^[16]
• Another example is "to have a butcher's" for'to have a look', frombutcher's hook.^[17]

Most of the words changed by this process are nouns, but a few are adjectival, e.g.,bales (of cotton)'rotten', or the adjectival phrase "on one's Tod" for'on one's own', afterTod Sloan, a famous jockey.^[2][18]

Rhyming slang is believed to have originated in the mid-19th century in theEast End of London, with several sources suggesting some time in the 1840s.^{[19]: 12 [20][21]}The Flash Dictionary, of unknown authorship, published in 1921 by Smeeton (48mo), contains a few rhymes.^[22]: 3John Camden Hotten's 1859Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words likewise states that it originated in the 1840s ("about twelve or fifteen years ago"), but with "chaunters" and "patterers" in theSeven Dials area of London.^[20] Hotten'sDictionary included the first known "Glossary of the Rhyming Slang", which included later mainstays such asfrog and toad'the main road' andapples and pears'stairs', as well as many more obscure examples, e.g.Battle of the Nile'a tile' (a common term for a hat),Duke of York'take a walk', andTop of Rome'home'.^[20][23][22]

It remains a matter of speculation exactly how rhyming slang originated, for example, as a linguistic game among friends or as acryptolect developed intentionally to confuse non-locals. If deliberate, it may also have been used to maintain a sense of community, or to allow traders to talk amongst themselves in marketplaces to facilitatecollusion, without customers knowing what they were saying, or by criminals to confuse the police (seethieves' cant).^{[citation needed]}

The academic, lexicographer and radio personalityTerence Dolan has suggested that rhyming slang was invented by Irish immigrants to London "so the actual English wouldn't understand what they were talking about."^[24]

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Many examples of rhyming slang are based on locations in London, such asPeckham Rye, meaning'tie',^[25]: 265 which dates from the late nineteenth century;Hampstead Heath, meaning'teeth'^[25]: 264 (usually asHampsteads), which was first recorded in 1887; andbarnet (Barnet Fair), meaning'hair',^[25]: 231 which dates from the 1850s.

In the 20th century, rhyming slang began to be based on the names of celebrities and pop culture references:

Many examples have passed into common usage. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in England in their contracted form.To have a butcher's, meaning'to have a look', originates frombutcher's hook, an S-shaped hook used by butchers to hang up meat, and dates from the late nineteenth century but has existed independently in general use from around the 1930s simply asbutchers.^[25]: 30 Similarly, "use your loaf", meaning'use your head', derives fromloaf of bread and also dates from the late nineteenth century but came into independent use in the 1930s.^{[9][page needed]}

Conversely usages have lapsed, or been usurped (Hounslow Heath for'teeth', was replaced byHampsteads startingc. 1887).[26]

In some cases,false etymologies exist. For example, the termbarney has been used to mean an altercation or fight since the late nineteenth century, although without a clear derivation.^[27] Dialog in the 2001 filmOcean's Eleven incorrectly explains thatbarney derives fromBarney Rubble,^[28] a character from the 1960's television cartoonThe Flintstones.^{[25]: 14 [27]}

Rhyming slang is used mainly in London in England but can, to some degree, be understood across the country. Some constructions, however, rely on particular regional accents for the rhymes to work. For instance, the termCharing Cross (a place in London), used to mean'horse' since the mid-nineteenth century,^{[9][page needed]} does not work for a speaker without thelot–cloth split, common in London at that time but not nowadays. A similar example isJoanna meaning'piano', which is based on the pronunciation ofpiano as "pianna"/piˈænə/.^{[citation needed]} Unique formations also exist in other parts of the United Kingdom, such as in theEast Midlands, where the local accent has formedDerby Road, which rhymes with'cold'.^{[citation needed]}

Outside England, rhyming slang is used in many English-speaking countries in theCommonwealth of Nations, with local variations. For example, in Australian slang, the term for an English person ispommy, which has been proposed as a rhyme onpomegranate, pronounced "Pummy Grant", which rhymed with'immigrant'.^[29][30]

Rhyming slang is continually evolving, and new phrases are introduced all the time; new personalities replace old ones—pop culture introduces new words—as in "I haven't a Scooby" (fromScooby Doo, the eponymous cartoon dog of thecartoon series) meaning'I haven't a clue'.^[31]

Rhyming slang is often used as a substitute for words regarded as taboo, often to the extent that the association with the taboo word becomes unknown over time.Berk (often used to mean "foolish person") originates from the most famous of allfox hunts, theBerkeley Hunt meaning'cunt';cobblers (often used in the context "what you said is rubbish") originates fromcobbler's awls, meaning'balls' (as in testicles); andHampton (usually 'ampton) meaning'prick' (as in penis) originates fromHampton Wick (a place in London) – the second part,wick, also entered common usage as "he gets on my wick" ('he is an annoying person').^[22]: 74

Lesser taboo terms includepony and trap for'crap' (as in defecate, but often used to denote nonsense or low quality); to blow araspberry (rude sound of derision) from raspberry tart for'fart'.Taking the Mick ortaking the Mickey is thought to be a rhyming slang form oftaking the piss, whereMick came fromMickey Bliss.^[32]

In December 2004Joe Pasquale, winner of the fourth series ofITV'sI'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, became well known for his frequent use of the termJacobs, forJacob's Cream Crackers, a rhyming slang term forknackers'testicles'.

Rhyming slang has been widely used in popular culture including film, television, music, literature, sport and degree classification.

In theBritish undergraduate degree classification system a first class honours degree is known as a "Geoff Hurst" (First) after the English 1966 World Cup footballer. An upper second class degree (a.k.a. a "2:1") is called an "Attila the Hun", and a lower second class ("2:2") a "Desmond Tutu", while a third class degree is known as a "Thora Hird" or "Douglas Hurd".^[33]

Cary Grant's character teaches rhyming slang to his female companion inMr. Lucky (1943), describing it as 'Australian rhyming slang'. Rhyming slang is also used and described in a scene of the 1967 filmTo Sir, with Love starringSidney Poitier, where the English students tell their foreign teacher that the slang is a drag and something for old people.^[34] The closing song of the 1969 crime caper,The Italian Job, ("Getta Bloomin' Move On" a.k.a. "The Self Preservation Society") contains many slang terms.

Rhyming slang has been used to lend authenticity to an East End setting. Examples includeLock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) (wherein the slang is translated via subtitles in one scene);The Limey (1999);Sexy Beast (2000);Snatch (2000);Ocean's Eleven (2001); andAustin Powers in Goldmember (2002);It's All Gone Pete Tong (2004), after BBC radio disc jockeyPete Tong whose name is used in this context as rhyming slang for "wrong";Green Street Hooligans (2005). InMargin Call (2011), Will Emerson, played by London-born actorPaul Bettany, asks a friend on the telephone, "How's the trouble and strife?" ("wife").

Cockneys vs Zombies (2012) mocked the genesis of rhyming slang terms when a Cockney character calls zombies "Trafalgars" to even his Cockney fellows' puzzlement; he then explains it thus: "Trafalgar square – fox and hare – hairy Greek – five day week – weak and feeble – pins and needles – needle and stitch – Abercrombie and Fitch – Abercrombie: zombie".

The live-actionDisney filmMary Poppins Returns song "Trip A Little Light Fantastic" involves Cockney rhyming slang in part of its lyrics, and is primarily spoken by the London lamplighters.

In the animated superhero filmSpider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023), characterSpider-Punk, aCamden native, is heard saying: "I haven't got aScooby-Doo" ("clue").^[35]

Slang had a resurgence of popular interest in Britain beginning in the 1970s, resulting from its use in a number of London-based television programmes such asSteptoe and Son (1970–74); andNot On Your Nellie (1974–75), starringHylda Baker as Nellie Pickersgill, alludes to the phrase "not on your Nellie Duff", rhyming slang for "not on your puff" i.e. not on your life. Similarly,The Sweeney (1975–78) alludes to the phrase "Sweeney Todd" for "Flying Squad", a rapid response unit of London's Metropolitan Police. InThe Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin (1976–79), a comic twist was added to rhyming slang by way of spurious and fabricated examples which a young man had laboriously attempted to explain to his father (e.g. 'dustbins' meaning 'children', as in 'dustbin lids'='kids'; 'Teds' being 'Ted Heath' and thus 'teeth'; and even 'Chitty Chitty' being 'Chitty Chitty Bang Bang', and thus 'rhyming slang'...). It was also featured in an episode ofThe Good Life in the first season (1975) where Tom and Barbara purchase a wood-burning range from a junk trader called Sam, who litters his language with phony rhyming slang in hopes of convincing suburban residents that he is an authentic traditional Cockney trader. He comes up with a fake story as to the origin of Cockney rhyming slang and is caught out rather quickly. InThe Jeffersons season 2 (1976) episode "The Breakup: Part 2",Mr. Bentley explains Cockney rhyming slang toGeorge Jefferson, in that "whistle and flute" means "suit", "apples and pears" means "stairs", "plates of meat" means "feet".

The use of rhyming slang was also prominent inMind Your Language (1977–79),Citizen Smith (1977–80),Minder^{[36][page needed]} (1979–94),Only Fools and Horses (1981–91), andEastEnders (1985–).Minder could be quite uncompromising in its use of obscure forms without any clarification. Thus the non-Cockney viewer was obliged to deduce that, say, "iron" was "male homosexual" ('iron'='iron hoof'='poof'). One episode in Series 5 ofSteptoe and Son was entitled "Any Old Iron", for the same reason, when Albert thinks that Harold is 'on the turn'. Variations of rhyming slang were also used in sitcomBirds of a Feather, by main characters Sharon and Tracey, often to the confusion of character, Dorian Green, who was unfamiliar with the terms.

One early US show to regularly feature rhyming slang was the Saturday morning children's showThe Bugaloos (1970–72), with the character of Harmony (Wayne Laryea) often incorporating it in his dialogue.

In popular music,Spike Jones and his City Slickers recorded "So 'Elp Me", based on rhyming slang, in 1950. The 1967Kinks song "Harry Rag" was based on the usage of the nameHarry Wragg as rhyming slang for "fag" (i.e. acigarette). The idiom made a brief appearance in the UK-based DJ reggae music of the 1980s in the hit "Cockney Translation" bySmiley Culture ofSouth London; this was followed a couple of years later by Domenick and Peter Metro's "Cockney and Yardie". London-based artists such asAudio Bullys andChas & Dave (and others from elsewhere in the UK, such asThe Streets, who are from Birmingham) frequently use rhyming slang in their songs.

British-American rapperMF Doom wrote an ode to the practice after moving to the UK. The track, entitled "Rhymin' Slang", was released on his 2012 collaborative album withJneiro Jarel,Key to the Kuffs.

Another contributor wasLonnie Donegan who had a song called "My Old Man's a Dustman". In it he says his father has trouble putting on his boots "He's got such a job to pull them up that he calls them daisy roots".^[37]

In modern literature, Cockney rhyming slang is used frequently in the novels and short stories ofKim Newman, for instance in the short story collections "The Man from the Diogenes Club" (2006) and "Secret Files of the Diogenes Club" (2007), where it is explained at the end of each book.^[38]

In theSlough House novelLondon Rules byMick Herron, the character Jackson Lamb uses the phrase "I'm overdue for a Donald", rhymingDonald Trump with 'dump' (defecation).

It is also parodied inGoing Postal byTerry Pratchett, which features a geriatric Junior Postman by the name of Tolliver Groat, a speaker of 'Dimwell Arrhythmic Rhyming Slang', the only rhyming slang on theDisc whichdoes not actually rhyme. Thus, a wig is a 'prunes', from 'syrup of prunes', an obvious parody of the Cockneysyrup fromsyrup of figs – wig. There are numerous other parodies, though it has been pointed out that the result is even more impenetrable than a conventional rhyming slang and so may not be quite so illogical as it seems, given the assumed purpose of rhyming slang as a means of communicating in a manner unintelligible to all but the initiated.

In the bookGoodbye to All That byRobert Graves, a beer is a "broken square" asWelch Fusiliers officers walk into a pub and order broken squares when they see men from the Black Watch.The Black Watch had a minor blemish on its record of otherwise unbroken squares. Fistfights ensued.

InDashiell Hammett'sThe Dain Curse, the protagonist exhibits familiarity with Cockney rhyming slang, referring to gambling at dice with the phrase "rats and mice."

Cockney rhyming slang is one of the main influences for the dialect spoken inA Clockwork Orange (1962).^[39] The author of the novel,Anthony Burgess, also believed the phrase "as queer as a clockwork orange" was Cockney slang having heard it in a London pub in 1945, and subsequently named it in the title of his book.^[40]

In Scottish football, a number of clubs have nicknames taken from rhyming slang.Partick Thistle are known as the "Harry Rags", which is taken from the rhyming slang of their 'official' nickname "the jags".Rangers are known as the "Teddy Bears", which comes from the rhyming slang for "the Gers" (shortened version of Ran-gers).Heart of Midlothian are known as the "Jambos", which comes from "Jam Tarts" which is the rhyming slang for "Hearts" which is the common abbreviation of the club's name.Hibernian are also referred to as "The Cabbage" which comes from Cabbage and Ribs being the rhyming slang for Hibs. The phrase Hampden Roar (originally describing the loud crowd noise emanating from thenational stadium) is employed as "What's the Hampden?",^[41] ("What's the score?",idiom for "What's happening / what's going on?").^[41][42]

Inrugby league, "meat pie" is used fortry.^[43]

• Argot
• Costermonger
• Euphemism
• Daffynition
• Navvy slang
• Nickname

• Partridge, Eric H. (1984) [1961]. Beale, Paul (ed.).A dictionary of slang and unconventional English: colloquialisms and catch-phrases, solecisms and catachreses, nicknames and vulgarisms (8th ed.). New York:Macmillan. pp. 1894–1979.ISBN 978-0-02-594980-5.LCCN 84-19455.

• "Having a barney", bulletin board discussion at Phrases.org.uk
• To Sir with Love, onYouTube
• Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels – Cockney Scene onYouTube

• 19th century in London
• 19th-century introductions
• British slang
• East End of London
• English language in England
• English language in London
• English-based argots
• Language games
• Rhyme
• Society of London

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