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Aresistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or anoccupying power, causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through either the use of violent ornonviolent resistance (sometimes calledcivil resistance), or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. In multiple cases, as for example in theUnited States during theAmerican Revolution,[2] or inNorway in the Second World War, a resistance movement may employ both violent and non-violent methods, usually operating under different organizations and acting in different phases or geographical areas within a country.[3]
TheOxford English Dictionary records use of the word "resistance" in the sense of organised opposition to an invader from 1862.[4] The modern usage of the term "Resistance" became widespread from the self-designation of multiple movements during World War II, especially theFrench Resistance. The term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using the term "resistance" to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be ananachronism. However, such movements existed prior to World War II (albeit often called by different names), and there have been more after it – for example in struggles against colonialism and foreign military occupations. "Resistance" has become[when?] a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country.
Resistance movements can include anyirregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority,government, oradministration. This frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resistingtyranny ordictatorship. Some resistance movements areunderground organizations engaged in a struggle for national liberation in a country undermilitary occupation ortotalitarian domination. Tactics of resistance movements against a constitutedauthority range fromnonviolent resistance andcivil disobedience, toguerrilla warfare andterrorism, or evenconventional warfare if the resistance movement is powerful enough. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts asterrorism, even when such attacks target only the military or security forces.Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting theAxis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi Hitler,German resistance movement in this period. Although the United Kingdom did not suffer invasion in World War II, preparations were made for a British resistance movement in the event of a German invasion (seeAuxiliary Units).
When geographies of resistance are discussed, it is often taken for granted that resistance takes place where domination, power, or oppression occurs and so resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination does not provide a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination, or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what is categorized as "power". In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. In Steve Pile's (1997) "Opposition, Political Identities and Spaces of Resistance", geographies of resistance show:
That people are positioned differently in unequal and multiple power relationships, that more or less powerful people are active in the constitution of unfolding relationships of authority, meaning and identity, that these activities are contingent, ambiguous and awkwardly situated, but that resistance seeks to occupy, deploy and create alternative spatialities from those defined through oppression and exploitation. From this perspective, assumptions about the domination/resistance couplet become questionable.
— Steve Pile, 1996: 3
We can better understand resistance by accounting different perspectives and by breaking the presumptions that resistance is always against power. In fact, resistance should be understood not only in relations to domination and authority, but also through other experiences, such as "desire and anger, capacity and ability, happiness and fear, dreaming and forgetting",[5] meaning that resistance is not always about the dominated versus the dominator, the exploited versus the exploiter, or the oppressed versus the oppressor. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, classified as violent and nonviolent resistance (and "other" which is unclear).
Different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. Furthermore, in order to understand any resistance – its capacity to achieve its objective effectively, its success or failure – we need to take closely into account multiple variables, such as political identities, cultural identities, class, race, gender and so on. The reason is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance. Harvey (1993),[citation needed] who looked at resistance in relations to capitalist economic exploitation, took on a fire accident happened in the Imperial Foods chicken processing plant in Hamlet, North Carolina in 1991, in which 20 of 200 workers were killed and 56 were injured due to poor working conditions and protections. He compared this accident with a similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York, 1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people.[6] He argued that no resistance took place in response to the fire accident in Hamlet because most of the people who died there were black and women workers, and he believed that not only class but also other identities such as race, gender, and sexuality were important factors in understanding nature and outcome of resistance. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken:
First, social justice must be defined from the perspective of the oppressed; second, a hierarchy of the oppressions has to be defined…..; third, political actions need to be understood and undertaken in terms of their situatedness and position in dynamic power relations: and finally, an epistemology capable of telling the difference between different differences has to be developed.
There are multiple forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Some resistance takes place in order to oppose, change, or reform the exploitation of the capitalist economic systems and the capitals, while other resistance takes place against the state or authority in power. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the social/culture norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called "globalization". For example,LGBT social movements is an example of resistance that challenges and tries to reform the existing cultural norms in multiple societies. Resistance can also be mapped in various scales ranging from local to national to regional and to global spaces. We can look at a big-scale resistance movement such asanti-globalization movement that tries to resist the global trend of capitalist economic system. Or we can look at theinternal resistance to apartheid, which took place at national level. Most, if not all,social movements can be considered as some forms of resistance.
Not all resistance takes place in physical spaces or geographies but in "other spaces" as well. Some resistance happens in the form ofProtest Art or in the form of music. Music can be used and has been used as a tool or space to resist certain oppression or domination. Gray-Rosendale, L. (2001) put it this way:[7]
Music acts as a rhetorical force that sanctions the construction of the boys' new black urban subjectivities that both challenge urban experience and yet give voice to it...music contributes a way to avoid physical and psychological immobility and to resist economic and cultural adaptation...and challenges the social injustice prevalent within the Northern economy.
— Gray-Rosendale, 2001: 154–56
In the age of advanced IT and mass consumption ofsocial media, resistance can also occur in the cyberspace. The Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council of NSW's Tobacco Resistance and Control (A-TRAC) team created a Facebook page to help promote anti-smoking campaign and rise awareness for its members.[8] Sometimes, resistance takes place in people's minds and ideology or in people's "inner spaces". For example, sometimes people have to struggle within or fight against their inner spaces, with their consciousness and, sometimes, with their fear before they can resist in the physical spaces. In other cases, people sometimes simply resist to certain ideology, belief, or culture norms within their minds. These kinds of resistance are less visible but are fundamental parts of all forms of resistance.
On the lawfulness of armed resistance movements ininternational law, there has been a dispute between states since at least 1899, when the first major codification of thelaws of war in the form of a series of international treaties took place. In the Preamble to the 1899 Hague Convention II on Land War, theMartens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between theGreat Powers who consideredfrancs-tireurs to beunlawful combatants subject to execution on capture and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants.[9][10]
More recently the 1977Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, referred inArticle 1. Paragraph 4 to armed conflicts "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes..." This phraseology, according USA that refused to ratify the Protocol, contains multiple ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant:[11] ultimately, in US Government opinion the distinction is just apolitical judgment.
Some definitions of resistance movement have proved controversial. Hence depending on the perspective of a state's government, a resistance movement may or may not be labelled aterrorist group based on whether the members of a resistance movement are considered lawful or unlawful combatants and whether they are recognized as having aright to resist occupation.[12]
According to Joint Publication 1-02, theUnited States Department of Defense defines a resistance movement as "an organized effort by some portion of the civil population of a country to resist the legally established government or an occupying power and to disrupt civil order and stability". In strict military terminology, a resistance movement is simply that; it seeks to resist (change) the policies of a government or occupying power. This may be accomplished through violent or non-violent means. In this view, a resistance movement is specifically limited to changing the nature of current power, not to overthrow it; and the correct[according to whom?] military term for removing or overthrowing a government is aninsurgency. However, in reality a number of resistance movements have aimed to displace a particular ruler, especially if that ruler has gained or retained power illegally.
Freedom fighter is another term for those engaged in a struggle to achieve political freedom for themselves or obtain freedom for others.[13] Though the literal meaning of the words could include "anyone who fights for the cause of freedom", in common use it may be restricted to those who are actively involved in anarmed rebellion, rather than those who campaign for freedom by peaceful means, or those who fight violently for the freedom of others outside the context of an uprising (though this title may be applied in its literal sense)
Generally speaking, freedom fighters are people who use physical force to cause a change in the political and or social order. Notable examples includeuMkhonto we Sizwe in South Africa, theSons of Liberty in theAmerican Revolution, theIrish Republican Army inIreland andNorthern Ireland, theEritrean People's Liberation Front, theHindustan Socialist Republican Association inIndia and theNational Resistance Army in Uganda, which were considered freedom fighters by supporters. However, a person who is campaigning for freedom through peaceful means may still be classed as a freedom fighter, though in common usage they are calledpolitical activists, as in the case of theBlack Consciousness Movement. In India, "Freedom fighter" is an officially recognized category by theIndian government covering those who took part in thecountry's independence movement; people in this category (can also include dependant family members)[14] get pensions and other benefits like special railway counters.[15]
People described as freedom fighters are often also calledassassins,rebels,insurgents orterrorists. This leads to theaphorism "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter".[16] The degree to which this occurs depends on a variety of factors specific to the struggle in which a given freedom fighter group is engaged.
During theCold War, the termfreedom fighter was first used with reference to theHungarian rebels in 1956.[17]Ronald Reagan picked up the term to explainAmerica's support of rebels in countries controlled bycommunist states or otherwise perceived to be under the influence of the Soviet Union, including theContras inNicaragua,UNITA inAngola and the multi-factionalmujahideen inAfghanistan.[17]
In the media, theBBC tries to avoid the phrases "terrorist" or "freedom fighter", except in attributed quotes, in favor of more neutral terms such as "militant", "guerrilla", "assassin", "insurgent", "rebel", "paramilitary", or "militia".[18]
Partisans often use captured weapons taken from their enemies, or weapons that have been stolen or smuggled in. During the Cold War, partisans often received arms from eitherNATO orWarsaw Pact member states. Where partisan resources are stretched,improvised weapons are also deployed.
The following examples are of groups that have been considered or would identify themselves as groups. These are mostly, but not exclusively, of armed resistance movements. For movements and phases of activity involving non-violent methods, seecivil resistance andnonviolent resistance.
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Quotations related toResistance movement at Wikiquote
