Kyrgyzstan's history spans a variety of cultures and empires. Although geographically isolated by its highly mountainous terrain, Kyrgyzstan has been at the crossroads of several great civilizations as part of theSilk Road along with other commercial routes. Inhabited by a succession of tribes and clans, Kyrgyzstan has periodically fallen under larger domination, for example theTurkicnomads, who trace their ancestry to many Turkic states. It was first established as theYenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate. Later, in the 13th century, Kyrgyzstan was conquered by theMongol Empire and under severalMongol dynasties; it regained independence, but was later invaded by theDzungar Khanate. After thefall of Dzhungars, Kyrgyz and Kipchaks were an integral part ofKokand Khanate. In 1876, Kyrgyzstan became part of theRussian Empire, and in 1936, theKirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was formed to become a constituent republic of theSoviet Union. FollowingMikhail Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidateAskar Akayev was elected president. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from theUSSR and a democratic government was established. Kyrgyzstan attained sovereignty as a nation state after thebreakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Kyrgyz is derived from the Turkic word for "We are forty", believed to refer to the forty clans ofManas, a legendary hero who united forty regional clans. ThePersiansuffix-stan means "place of".
The 40-ray sun on theflag of Kyrgyzstan is a reference to those same forty tribes and the graphical element in the sun's center depicts the wooden crown, called tunduk, of ayurt—a portable dwelling traditionally used by nomads in thesteppes of Central Asia.
The country's official name isKyrgyz Republic, used in international arenas and foreign relations.[24][25] In the English-speaking world, the spellingKyrgyzstan is commonly used, while its former nameKirghizia[c] is rarely used.[26]
TheKyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating theUyghur Khaganate in 840 AD.[27] From the tenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated as far as theTian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years.
In the 12th century, the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to theAltay Range andSayan Mountains as a result of theMongol expansion. With the rise of theMongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. The Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207.
Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on theSilk Road, a land route for traders, merchants, and other travelers from the Far East to Europe.Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the mid-18th century by theManchu-ledQing dynasty of China, and in the early 19th century by the UzbekKhanate of Kokand.[29] In 1842, the Kyrgyz tribes broke away from Kokand and united into theKara-Kyrgyz Khanate [ky], led byOrmon Khan. Following Ormon's death in 1854, the khanate disintegrated.[30]
In the late nineteenth century, the eastern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan, mainly theIssyk-Kul Region, was ceded to theRussian Empire byQing China through theTreaty of Tarbagatai.[31] The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirghizia", was formally incorporated into the Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to relocate to thePamir Mountains andAfghanistan.
In addition, the suppression of the1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China.[32] Since many ethnic groups in the region were, and still are, split between neighboring states at a time when borders were more porous and less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better; this might mean better rains for pasture or better government during oppression.
After theRussian Civil War, the period of theNew Economic Policy (NEP), began, which lasted roughly to 1928.[33] TheBolsheviks made an effort to establish a standardized tax system, with higher taxes for nomads to discourage the wandering livelihood and they divided the Central Asia region into five nation-states.[33][34][35] Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life, literacy was greatly improved. Economic and social development also was notable.[36] UnderStalin a great focus was put on Kyrgyznational identity. The Soviet state was fighting tribalism: its social organization based on patrilineal kinship contradicted the concept of the modern nation state.[34][36] In a region that did not previously know national institutions or consciousness, the process of nation-building was, from the indigenous perspective, a difficult and ambivalent one.[35]
By the end of the 1920s, the Soviet Union developed a series offive-year plans, centered aroundindustrialization and thecollectivization of agriculture, including the creation of huge "kolkhoz"collective farming systems, needed to feed the new workers in the industries.[37] Because of the plan's reliance on rapidity, major economic and cultural changes had to occur, which led to conflicts. In Kyrgyzstan, Russian settlers acquired the best pasture land, creating much hardship for most of its original inhabitants,Kazakh,Kyrgyz andTurkmen nomads, who were also forced to settle down on soil that hadn't enough agricultural potential.[35][38] The changes caused unrest, and between 1928 and 1932, nomads and peasants made it clear through methods like passive resistance that they did not agree with these policies, in the Kirgiziya area also guerrilla opposition occurred.[33][35][38] The region suffered relatively more deaths from collectivization than any other.[33]
The early years ofglasnost, in the late 1980s, had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the Republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication,Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute housing crisis were permitted to function.
According to the last Soviet census in 1989, ethnic Kyrgyz made up only 22% of the residents of the northern city ofFrunze (now Bishkek), while more than 60% were Russians, Ukrainians, and people from otherSlavic nations. Nearly 10% of the capital's population were Jewish (a rather unique fact, for almost any place in the Soviet Union, except theJewish Autonomous Oblast).
In June 1990, ethnic tensions betweenUzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in theOsh Region (southern Kyrgyzstan), where Uzbeks form a minority of the population.[39] The tensions between Kyrgyzs and Uzbeks in Osis led to 186 deaths.[40] Attempts to appropriate Uzbekcollective farms for housing development triggered theOsh Riots. A state of emergency and curfew were introduced[41] andAskar Akayev, the youngest of five sons born into a family of collective farm workers (in northern Kyrgyzstan), was elected president in October of that same year. By then, theKyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a significant political force with support in Parliament. On 15 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new cabinet composed mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians. In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name of Bishkek.[42]
Despite these political moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against secession from the Soviet Union. In a referendum on the preservation of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7% of the voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as a "renewed federation".[43] Nevertheless, secessionist forces pushed Kyrgyzstan's independence through in August of that same year.
On 19 August 1991, when theState Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice PresidentGerman Kuznetsov announced their resignations from theCommunist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire bureau and secretariat resigned. This was followed by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the Soviet Union on 31 August 1991 as theRepublic of Kyrgyzstan.[44]
According to a 2013Gallup poll, 62% ofKyrgyz people say that the collapse of theSoviet Union harmed their country, while only 16% said that the collapse benefitted it.[45]
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected president of the new independent republic by direct ballot, receiving 95 percent of the votes cast. Together with representatives of seven other Republics that same month, he signed theTreaty of the Economic Community. The new leaders of three out of four Soviet Union's founding republics, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, on 8 December 1991 signed theBelavezha Accords, denouncing theUnion Treaty of 1922, declaring that the Union would cease to exist and proclaimed theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place.[46]
As of today, Kyrgyzstan celebrates its Independence Day annually on August 31, the anniversary of its declaration of independence in 1991. Since independence, Kyrgyzstan has made developments such as creating genuinely free news media and fostering an active political opposition.[48]
In February and March 2005, parliamentary elections were held, which the opposition and international observers criticized for alleged irregularities. Widespread protests erupted, leading to the ousting ofPresident Askar Akayev, who fled the country and resigned in April 2005. This series of events became known as theTulip Revolution. Subsequently,Kurmanbek Bakiyev, a former prime minister and opposition leader, assumed the presidency after winning the July 2005 presidential election with a significant majority.[49][50][51]
After assuming office, President Bakiyev faced challenges, including political unrest and demands for constitutional reforms. In 2006 and 2007, large-scale protests occurred, with citizens calling for a reduction in presidential powers and increased governmental transparency. In response, Bakiyev implemented constitutional amendments and appointed opposition figures to key positions. Despite these measures, tensions persisted throughout his tenure.[50]
Throughout the decade, Kyrgyzstan grappled with economic difficulties, including energy shortages and rising utility prices. In 2009, the government announced significant increases in electricity and heating tariffs, leading to public discontent. Additionally, the country faced challenges related to corruption and organized crime, which impacted its social and economic development.[52][53]
In 2009, Bakiyev announced the eviction of the U.S. military from theManas Air Base, a strategic transit center supporting operations inAfghanistan.[54]
In April 2010, widespread protests erupted againstPresident Kurmanbek Bakiyev's administration, driven by public discontent over corruption and rising energy prices. These demonstrations culminated in Bakiyev's ousting and the establishment of a provisional government led byRoza Otunbayeva. Subsequently, in June 2010, violent ethnic clashes occurred in the southern cities ofOsh andJalal-Abad betweenKyrgyz andUzbek communities, resulting in over 400 deaths and displacing thousands.[55][56]
Following these events, a referendum was held in June 2010 to adopt a new constitution aimed at reducing presidential powers and enhancing parliamentary authority. The referendum passed with approximately 90% approval and a 70% voter turnout, despite challenges posed by recent unrest. This constitution introduced a single six-year term for the president without the possibility of re-election and limited any single political party to 65 of the 120 parliamentary seats to prevent power concentration.[55][57]
Under the new constitutional framework, Kyrgyzstan held its first parliamentary elections in October 2010, which were noted for their peaceful conduct and absence of major voting irregularities. In 2011,Almazbek Atambayev was elected president, serving until 2017. His tenure focused on stabilizing the country and implementing democratic reforms, including the introduction of biometric registration to enhance electoral transparency. In 2017,Sooronbay Jeenbekov succeeded Atambayev as president, continuing efforts to strengthen democratic institutions and address ongoing challenges such as corruption and economic development.[57]
Significant reforms were undertaken during this period, including the abolition of military courts in December 2016 to streamline the judicial system and enhance civilian oversight. Additionally, the Ministry of Defense was restructured into the State Committee for Defense Affairs, with operational control of the armed forces transferred to theGeneral Staff to improve military efficiency and accountability.
In October 2020, widespread protests erupted in response to disputed parliamentary election results, leading to the annulment of the elections and the resignation of PresidentSooronbay Jeenbekov. Amid the unrest,Sadyr Japarov, a nationalist politician previously imprisoned, was released and subsequently appointed as interim president and prime minister. His rapid ascent to power was facilitated by parliamentary approval under contentious circumstances. In January 2021, Japarov was elected president in a landslide victory.[55][58][59][60]
Following his election, President Japarov initiated a series of constitutional reforms aimed at shifting the country's governance structure from a parliamentary to a presidential system. A referendum held in January 2021 approved these changes, granting the president expanded powers, including the authority to appoint judges and diminishing the role of parliament. Critics labeled the new constitution the "Khanstitution," expressing concerns over the potential for authoritarian rule.[58][55][59][61]
The period also witnessed increased pressure on independent media and civil society organizations. In 2024, the Kyrgyz government implemented measures to intimidate and silence journalists and critics. TheSupreme Court ordered the closure of a leading investigative media outlet, sentencing two journalists to prison terms and placing two others on probation for their reporting. Additionally, a "foreign representatives" law came into effect in April 2024, imposing strict government oversight on NGOs receiving foreign funding.[62][63][59][64]
Kyrgyzstan's longstanding border disputes with neighboringTajikistan escalated into violent clashes, notably around the town ofBatken in 2021 and 2022, culminating in a six-day conflict in September 2022. In March 2025, Presidents Japarov andEmomali Rahmon of Tajikistan signed an agreement to demarcate their shared border, aiming to resolve the territorial conflicts and reopen transportation links that had been closed since the 2022 clashes.[65]
Kyrgyzstan's topographyOn the southern shore of Issyk Kul lake,Issyk Kul Region
Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country inCentral Asia, borderingKazakhstan,China,Tajikistan andUzbekistan. It lies between latitudes39° and44° N, and longitudes69° and81° E. It is farther from the sea than any other individual country, and all its rivers flow intoclosed drainage systems which do not reach the sea. The mountainous region of theTian Shan covers over 80% of the country (Kyrgyzstan is occasionally referred to as "the Switzerland of Central Asia", as a result),[66] with the remainder made up of valleys and basins.
A map of Kyrgyzstan
Issyk-Kul Lake, or Ysyk-Köl inKyrgyz, in the north-eastern Tian Shan is the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and the second largest mountain lake in the world afterTiticaca. The lowest point is inKara-Daryya (Karadar'ya) at 132 meters and the highest peaks are in the Kakshaal-Too range, forming the Chinese border. PeakJengish Chokusu, at 7,439 m (24,406 ft), is the highest point and is considered by geologists to be the northernmost peak over 7,000 m (22,966 ft) in the world. Heavy snowfall in winter leads to spring floods which often cause serious damage downstream. The runoff from the mountains is also used forhydro-electricity.
Kyrgyzstan has significant deposits of metals includinggold andrare-earth metals. Due to the country's predominantly mountainous terrain, less than 8% of the land is cultivated, and this is concentrated in the northern lowlands and the fringes of theFergana Valley.
Bishkek in the north is the capital and largest city, with 937,400 inhabitants (as of 2015[update]). The second city is the ancient town ofOsh, located in the Fergana Valley near the border with Uzbekistan. The principal river is theKara Darya, which flows west through the Fergana Valley into Uzbekistan. Across the border in Uzbekistan it meets another major Kyrgyz river, theNaryn.
The confluence forms theSyr Darya, which originally flowed into theAral Sea. As of 2010[update], it no longer reaches the sea, as its water is withdrawn upstream to irrigate cotton fields inTajikistan,Uzbekistan, and southernKazakhstan. TheChu River also briefly flows through Kyrgyzstan before entering Kazakhstan.
The climate varies regionally. The low-lyingFergana Valley in the southwest issubtropical and extremely hot insummer, with temperatures reaching 40 °C (104 °F). The northernfoothills aretemperate and theTian Shan varies from drycontinental topolar climate, depending on elevation. In the coldest areas, winter temperatures drop below freezing for approximately 40 days, and even somedesert areas experience constant snowfall during this period. In the lowlands the temperature ranges from around −6 °C (21 °F) in January to 24 °C (75 °F) in July.
Reduction of glacier area in theBorkoldoy range (1965-2010)Climate change is evident in Kyrgyzstan. Among the countries inEastern Europe andCentral Asia, Kyrgyzstan is the third most vulnerable to theeffects of climate change, such as changes in weather patterns that could lead to prolonged periods of precipitation and drought.[69] Moreover, the frequent occurrence of extreme weather and climate events such as heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfalls, and biotic/abiotic catastrophes during recent years are evidence of climate change.[70] Kyrgyzstan is threatened withglacier melting and a lack of freshwater balance, which are accelerated by global warming.[71] The average temperature has increased from 4.8 °C to 6 °C so far within the last 20 years.[72] In 2013 the World Bank estimated a likely increase of 2 °C in average mean temperature by 2060 and of 4–5 °C by 2100, noting that the country's glaciers were significantly reduced and projected to decline further.[73] A significant warming trend in Kyrgyztsan with a projected increase of 6°C under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenario SSP5-8.5 from 2076 to 2096.[74] However the very slight increase in temperature is expected to positively affect climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, energy, and forestry as more land is within the optimum temperature band.[citation needed]
There is oneexclave, the tiny village ofBarak[75] (population 627), in theFergana Valley. The village is surrounded byUzbek territory. It is located on the road fromOsh (Kyrgyzstan) to Khodjaabad (Uzbekistan) about 4 kilometres (2 miles) north-west from theKyrgyz–Uzbek border in the direction ofAndijan.[76] Barak is administratively part ofKara-Suu District in Kyrgyzstan'sOsh Region.
There are four Uzbekenclaves within Kyrgyzstan. Two of them are the towns ofSokh, with an area of 325 km2 (125 sq mi) and a population of 42,800 in 1993, although some estimates go as high as 70,000 (99% areTajiks, the remainderUzbeks); andShakhimardan (also known as Shahimardan, Shohimardon, or Shah-i-Mardan), with an area of 90 km2 (35 sq mi) and a population of 5,100 in 1993; 91% are Uzbeks, and the remaining 9% areKyrgyz; the other two are the tiny territories of Chong-Kara (roughly 3 km (2 mi) long by 1 km (0.6 mi) wide) and Jangy-ayyl (a dot of land barely 2–3 km (1–2 mi) across). Chong-Kara is on theSokh river, between the Uzbek border and the Sokh enclave. Jangy-ayyl is about 60 kilometres (37 mi) east ofBatken, in a northward projection of the Kyrgyz-Uzbek border nearKhalmion.
There are also two enclaves belonging toTajikistan on theKyrgyz-Tajik border:Vorukh, andLolazor. Vorukh has an area between 95–130 km2 (37–50 sq mi), and a population estimated between 23,000 and 29,000, 95% Tajiks and 5% Kyrgyz. It is distributed among 17 villages and is located around 45 kilometres (28 mi) south ofIsfara on the right bank of the riverKaravshin. Lolazor (Western Qalacha or Kayragach) is a small settlement near the Kyrgyz railway station ofKairagach.
The1993 constitution defines the form of government as a democraticunicameral republic. The executive branch includes a president and prime minister. The parliament currently is unicameral. The judicial branch comprises a supreme court, local courts and a chief prosecutor.
In March 2002, in the southern district ofAksy, five people protesting thearbitrary arrest of an opposition politician were shot dead by police, sparking nationwideprotests. PresidentAskar Akayev initiated a constitutional reform process which initially included the participation of a broad range of government, civil and social representatives in an open dialogue, leading to a February 2003 referendum marred by voting irregularities.
The amendments to the constitution approved by the referendum resulted in stronger control by the president and weakened theparliament and the Constitutional Court. Parliamentary elections for a new, 75-seat unicameral legislature were held on 27 February and 13 March 2005, but were widely viewed as corrupt. The subsequent protests led to a bloodlesscoup on 24 March 2005, after which Akayev fled the country with his family and was replaced by acting presidentKurmanbek Bakiyev.
On 10 July 2005, acting president Bakiyev won thepresidential election in a landslide, with 88.9% of the vote, and was inaugurated on 14 August. However, initial public support for the new administration substantially declined in subsequent months as a result of its apparent inability to solve the corruption problems that had plagued the country since its independence from theSoviet Union, along with the murders of several members of parliament. Large-scale protests against president Bakiyev took place in Bishkek in April and November 2006, with opposition leaders accusing the president of failing to live up to his election promises to reform the country's constitution and transfer many of his presidential powers to parliament.[77]
Kyrgyzstan is also a member of theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), a league of 57 participating states committed to peace, transparency, and the protection of human rights in Eurasia. As an OSCE participating state, Kyrgyzstan's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of theU.S. Helsinki Commission.
In December 2008, the state-owned broadcastKTRK announced that it would require prior submission ofRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty programmes, which KTRK are required to retransmit according to a 2005 agreement.[78] KTRK had stopped retransmitting RFE/RL programming in October 2008, a week after it failed to broadcast an RFE/RL programme calledInconvenient Questions which covered the October elections, claiming to have lost the missing material. President Bakiyev had criticised this programme in September 2008, while KTRK told RFE/RL that its programming was too negative.Reporters Without Borders, which ranks Kyrgyzstan 111th out of 173 countries on itsPress Freedom Index, strongly criticised the decision.
On 3 February 2009, President Bakiyev announced the imminent closure of theManas Air Base, the only US military base remaining in Central Asia.[79] The closure was approved by Parliament on 19 February 2009 by a vote of 78–1 for the government-backed bill.[80] However, after much behind-the-scenes negotiation between Kyrgyz, Russian and American diplomats, the decision was reversed in June 2009. The Americans were allowed to remain under a new contract, whereby rent would increase from $17.4 million to $60 million annually.[81] The US military fully withdrew from Manas Air Base in 2014.
Kyrgyzstan is among the fifty countries in the world with the highest perceived level of corruption: the 2016Corruption Perception Index for Kyrgyzstan is 28 on a scale of 0 (most corrupt) to 100 (least corrupt).[82]
In 2010, another revolution erupted in the country (see:April uprising). President Bakiyev, together with his relatives, including his sonMaksim[83] and brotherJanish—were forced to flee to Kazakhstan and then sought asylum in Belarus.Roza Otunbayeva, who was appointed interim president, announced that she did not intend to run for thePresidential elections in 2011. The election was held in November and won by Prime MinisterAlmazbek Atambayev, leader of theSocial Democratic Party, and Atambayev was sworn in as president on 1 December 2011.Omurbek Babanov was appointed prime minister on the same day and was confirmed on 23 December 2011.[84]
In 2015, Kyrgyzstan became a full-fledged member of theEurasian Economic Union (EES) after it formally abolished customs controls along its border with Kazakhstan, other members are the former Soviet republics Russia, Kazakhstan,Belarus, andArmenia.
In October 2017,Sooronbay Jeenbekov, a former prime minister backed by incumbent Almazbek Atambayev, was elected as the new President of Kyrgyzstan.[86] In foreign policy he saw theKremlin as the country's "main strategic partner" andChina as an "important strategic and trade partner", but he intended to seek more collaborative bilateral ties with European partners.[87] On 7 August 2019, the Special Forces of Kyrgyzstan launched an operation against the residence of former President Almazbek Atambayev, supposedly based on charges of corruption made against him.[88][89] In a meeting of theSecurity Council, President Jeenbekov accused Atambayev of violating the constitution.[90] In October 2020, President Sooronbay Jeenbekov resigned after protests caused by irregularities in parliamentaryelections on 4 October 2020.[91]
In January 2021,Sadyr Japarov was elected as the new president after winning the presidentialelection by a landslide.[92]
In April 2021, the majority of voters approved in the constitutionalreferendum a new constitution that will give new powers to the president, significantly strengthening the power of the presidency.[93]
Kyrgyzstan is divided into sevenregions (Kyrgyz:облустар). The regions are subdivided into 44districts (Kyrgyz:аймактар,aymaqtar;). The districts are further subdivided into rural districts at the lowest level of administration, which include all rural settlements (aýyl ökmötü) and villages without an associated municipal government.
The cities ofBishkek andOsh have status "state importance" and do not belong to any region.
Each region is headed by an akim (regional governor) appointed by the president. District akims are appointed by regional akims.
A clickable map of Kyrgyzstan exhibiting its provinces.
The regions, and independent cities, are as follows, with subdivisions:
The armed forces of Kyrgyzstan were formed after thecollapse of the Soviet Union and consist of theLand Forces,Air Forces,internal troops,National Guard, and theborder guard. The military works with theUS Armed Forces, which leased a facility named theTransit Center at Manas at Manas International Airport near Bishkek until June 2014.[94] In recent years, the armed forces have begun developing better relations with Russia including signing modernization deals worth $1.1bn and participating in more exercises with Russian troops.[95] The Agency of National Security works with the military and serves similar purposes to its Soviet predecessor, theKGB. It oversees an elite counterterrorism special forces unit known as "Alfa", the same name used by other former Soviet countries, including Russia andUzbekistan. The police are commanded by the Ministry of the Interior Affairs, along with the border guard.[96]
Kyrgyzstan is classified as a "hybrid regime" in theDemocracy Index, ranking 107th out of 167 for 2020.[97] Kyrgyzstan was also ranked "not free" in the 2021Freedom in the World report with a score of 28/100. In 2020, it was ranked "partly free" with a score of 39/100.[98]
After the installment of a more democratic government, many human rights violations still take place. In a move that alarmed human-rights groups, dozens of prominent Uzbek religious and community leaders were arrested by security forces following the2010 South Kyrgyzstan riots, including journalist and human-rights activistAzimzhan Askarov.[99] A law banning women under the age of 23 from traveling abroad without a parent or guardian, with the purpose of "increased morality and preservation of the gene pool" passed in the Kyrgyz parliament in June 2013.[100] American diplomats expressed concern in October 2014 when Kyrgyzstan lawmakers passed a law that imposes jail terms ongay-rights activists and others, including journalists, who create "a positive attitude toward non-traditional sexual relations."[101]
Kyrgyzstani activist and journalist Azimzhan Askarov was sentenced to life in prison in 2010.[102] On 24 January 2017, a Kyrgyz court has reinstated a sentence of life imprisonment for Askarov.[103]
In February 2024, the independent investigative media organizationKloop was ordered shut down by the Kyrgyz courts. This move drew criticism within the country and abroad.[104][105]
Kyrgyzstan was the ninth poorest country in the formerSoviet Union, and is today the second poorest country inCentral Asia afterTajikistan. 22.4% of the country's population lives below the poverty line.[107]
Despite the backing of major Western lenders, including theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF), theWorld Bank and theAsian Development Bank, Kyrgyzstan has had economic difficulties following independence. Initially, these were a result of the breakup of the Soviet trade bloc and resulting loss of markets, which impeded the republic's transition to a demand economy.
The government has reduced expenditures, ended most price subsidies and introduced avalue-added tax. Overall, the government appears committed to the transition to amarket economy. Through economic stabilization and reform, the government seeks to establish a pattern of long-term consistent growth. Reforms led to Kyrgyzstan's accession to theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) on 20 December 1998.
The Kyrgyz economy was severely affected by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the resulting loss of its vast market. In 1990, some 98% of Kyrgyz exports went to other parts of the Soviet Union. Thus, the nation's economic performance in the early 1990s was worse than any other former Soviet republic except war-tornArmenia,Azerbaijan andTajikistan, as factories and state farms collapsed with the disappearance of their traditional markets in the former Soviet Union. While economic performance has improved considerably in the last few years, and particularly since 1998, difficulties remain in securing adequatefiscal revenues and providing an adequatesocial safety net.Remittances of around 800,000 Kyrgyz migrants working in Russia contribute to the economy however in recent years, remittances have decreased.[108][109]
Agriculture is an important sector of the economy in Kyrgyzstan (seeagriculture in Kyrgyzstan). By the early 1990s, the private agricultural sector provided between one-third and one-half of some harvests. In 2002, agriculture accounted for 35.6% of GDP and about half of employment. Kyrgyzstan's terrain is mountainous, which accommodateslivestock raising, the largest agricultural activity, so the resultingwool,meat anddairy products are major commodities. Main crops includewheat,sugar beets,potatoes,cotton,tobacco,vegetables, andfruit. As the prices of importedagrichemicals andpetroleum are so high, much farming is being done by hand and by horse, as it was generations ago. Agricultural processing is a key component of the industrial economy as well as one of the most attractive sectors for foreign investment.
Kyrgyzstan is rich in mineral resources but has negligiblepetroleum andnatural gas reserves; it imports petroleum and gas. Among its mineral reserves are substantial deposits ofcoal,gold,uranium,antimony, and other valuable metals.Metallurgy is an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment in this field. The government has actively encouraged foreign involvement in extracting and processing gold from theKumtor Gold Mine and other regions. The country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities ofhydroelectric energy.
The principal exports are nonferrous metals and minerals, woollen goods and other agricultural products, electric energy and certain engineering goods. Imports include petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, some foods and some construction materials. Its leading trade partners include Germany, Russia, China,Kazakhstan, andUzbekistan. After Beijing launched the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013, China has expanded its economic presence and initiated a number of sizable infrastructure projects in Kyrgyzstan.[110]
In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Kyrgyz Republic ranks last in Central Asia in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI)—an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Kyrgyz Republic ranked number 118 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, unchanged from 2013 (seeNetworked Readiness Index).
The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to have a significant negative impact on the Kyrgyz economy that is reliant on services, remittances and natural resources. As a result, in order to mitigate the economic shock and preserve much of the development progress achieved in recent years the World Bank will provide support by financing several projects in the country.[111]
One of the most popular tourist destination points in Kyrgyzstan is the lakeIssyk-Kul. Numerous hotels, resorts and boarding houses are located along its northern shore. The most popular beach zones are in the city ofCholpon-Ata and the settlements nearby, such as Kara-Oi (Dolinka), Bosteri and Korumdy. The number of tourists visiting the lake was more than a million a year in 2006 and 2007. However, due to the economic and political instability in the region, the number has declined in recent years.[112]
The headquarters of the Kyrgyz Academy of Sciences is located in Bishkek, where several research institutes are located. Kyrgyz researchers are developing useful technologies based on natural products, such as heavy metal remediation for purifying waste water.[113] Kyrgyzstan was ranked 99th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[114]
Kyrgyzstan's population is estimated at 6,586,600 in August 2020.[116] Of those, 34.4% are under the age of 15 and 6.2% are over 65. The country isrural: only about one-third of the population live in urban areas. The averagepopulation density is 25 people per km2.
In the 2024Global Hunger Index (GHI), Kyrgyzstan has a score of 6.8, ranking 36th among 127 countries with sufficient data. The hunger level is classified as low.[117]
The nation's largestethnic group are theKyrgyz, aTurkic people, who comprise 77.8% of the population. Other ethnic groups include theRussians (3.8%) concentrated in the north and theUzbeks (14.2%) living in the south. Small but noticeable minorities include theDungans (1.0%),Tajiks (0.9%),Uyghurs (0.5%),Kazakhs (0.4%), and other smaller ethnic minorities.[2] The country has over 80 ethnic groups.[118]
The Kyrgyz have historically been semi-nomadic herders, living in round tents calledyurts and tendingsheep,horses andyaks. This nomadic tradition continues to function seasonally (seetranshumance) as herding families return to the high mountain pasture (orjailoo) in the summer. The sedentary Uzbeks and Tajiks traditionally have farmed lower-lying irrigated land in theFergana valley.[119]
Kyrgyzstan has undergone a pronounced change in its ethnic composition since independence.[120][121][122] The percentage of ethnic Kyrgyz has increased from around 50% in 1979 to over 70% in 2013, while the percentage of ethnic groups, such as Russians, Ukrainians, Germans and Tatars dropped from 35% to about 7%.[116] Since 1991, a large number ofGermans, who in 1989 numbered 101,000 persons, have emigrated to Germany.[123]
Population of Kyrgyzstan according to ethnic group 1926–2024
The name of Kyrgyzstan rendered in thetraditional script in use from the 13th century to 1920
Kyrgyz is the state language of Kyrgyzstan.Russian is additionally an official language. Kyrgyzstan is one of five former Soviet republics to have Russian as ade jureofficial language, along with Russia,Belarus,Kazakhstan, andTajikistan.[129] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyz was adopted as the state language of Kyrgyzstan in 1991. Kyrgyzstan adopted Russian as an official language in 2000.[130] The languages have different legal statuses.
Kyrgyz is aTurkic language of theKipchak branch, closely related toKazakh,Karakalpak, andNogay Tatar. It was written in theArabic alphabet until the twentieth century. TheLatin script was introduced and adopted on Stalin's orders in 1928, and was subsequently replaced byCyrillic script in 1941.[131] A reformed Perso-Arabic alphabet, created by the Kyrgyz intellectual and scientistKasym Tynystanov is the official script of the Kyrgyz language in the People's Republic of China.[132] As a result of the pending language reform in neighboring Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan will be the only independentTurkic-speaking country in a few years that exclusively uses the Cyrillic alphabet.[133] In April 2023, Russia suspended dairy exports to Kyrgyzstan after the chairman of Kyrgyzstan's National Commission for the State Language and Language Policies, Kanybek Osmonaliev, proposed to change the official script from Cyrillic to Latin to bring the country in line with other Turkic-speaking nations. Osmonaliev was reprimanded by PresidentSadyr Japarov who then clarified that Kyrgyzstan had no plans to replace the Cyrillic alphabet.[134]
Russian TV media enjoy enormous popularity in Kyrgyzstan, especially in the deeplyRussifiedcity of Bishkek and theChüy Region, despite the percentage of Russians today being a fraction of that in 1989. According toWorld Values Survey in 2020, Russian was the language spoken at home for 55.6% of the population of Bishkek, and Kyrgyz was the second with 43.6%. However, the countrywide figure for the Russian was only 16.3%, whereas Kyrgyz was the home language of 70.9%.Uzbek language was the third most spoken home language with 10.7% according to the same survey.[135] Russian media outlets have an enormous influence on public opinion in Kyrgyzstan, especially in areas such ashuman rights and international political developments.[136]
Many business and political affairs are carried out in Russian. Until recently, Kyrgyz remained a language spoken at home and was rarely used during meetings or other events. However, most parliamentary meetings today are conducted in Kyrgyz, with simultaneous interpretation available for those not speaking Kyrgyz. According to anRFE/RL article from 2014, despite the attempts to raise the status of Kyrgyz, thousands of Kyrgyz are russifying their names every year (around 40,000), mostly for career prospects, and to remove themselves from the Russian blacklists (people who are to be deported upon entrance) by registering different names. There are also many Russian-language medium schools that are supported from the Russian foundations via the embassy of Russia in Bishkek which are better funded than the Kyrgyz language medium schools. Due to this, many ethnic Kyrgyz go to Russian language medium schools. Many high school students change their surnames annually; for example, 800 such changes were recorded in high school students in the region of Naryn.[137]
Islam is the dominant religion of Kyrgyzstan and most Kyrgyz. The CIA World Factbook estimates that as of 2017, 90% of the population is Muslim, with the majority beingSunni; 7% are Christian, including 3%Russian Orthodoxy, and the remainder are other religions.[138] A 2009Pew Research Center report indicated 86.3% of Kyrgyzstan's population adhering to Islam.[139] The great majority of Muslims are Sunni, adhering to theHanafi school of thought,[140] although a 2012 Pew survey report showed that only 23% of respondents to a questionnaire chose to identify themselves as Sunni, with 64% volunteering that they were "just a Muslim".[141] There are a fewAhmadiyya Muslims, though unrecognized by the country.[142]
During Soviet times,state atheism was encouraged. Today, however, Kyrgyzstan is asecular state, although Islam has exerted a growing influence in politics.[143] For instance, there has been an attempt to arrange for officials to travel onhajj (the pilgrimage toMecca) under a tax-free arrangement.
WhileIslam in Kyrgyzstan is more of a cultural background than a devout daily practice for many, public figures have expressed support for restoring religious values. For example,human rightsombudsman Tursunbay Bakir-Ulu noted, "In this era of independence, it is not surprising that there has been a return to spiritual roots not only in Kyrgyzstan, but also in other post-communist republics. It would be immoral to develop a market-based society without an ethical dimension."[143]
Additionally,Bermet Akayeva, the daughter ofAskar Akayev, the former President of Kyrgyzstan, stated during a July 2007 interview that Islam is increasingly taking root across the nation.[144] She emphasized that manymosques have recently been built and that the Kyrgyz are increasingly devoting themselves to Islam, which she noted was "not a bad thing in itself. It keeps our society more moral, cleaner."[144] There is a contemporarySufi order present which adheres to a somewhat different form of Islam than the orthodox Islam.[145]
Mosque under construction in Kyrgyzstan
The other faiths practiced in Kyrgyzstan includeRussian Orthodox andUkrainian Orthodox versions ofChristianity, practiced primarily byRussians andUkrainians respectively. A community of 5,000 to 10,000 Jehovah's Witnesses gather in both Kyrgyz and Russian-speaking congregations, as well as some Chinese- and Turkish-speaking groups.[146][147] A small minority of ethnic Germans are also Christian, mostlyLutheran andAnabaptist as well as aRoman Catholic community of approximately 600.[148][149]
A fewAnimistic traditions survive, as do influences fromBuddhism such as the tying ofprayer flags onto sacred trees, though some view this practice rooted withinSufi Islam.[152] There is also a small number ofBukharian Jews living in Kyrgyzstan, but during the collapse of theSoviet Union most fled to other countries, mainly the United States and Israel. In addition, there is a small community ofAshkenazi Jews, who fled to the country from eastern Europe during theSecond World War.[153]
On 6 November 2008, the Kyrgyzstan parliament unanimously passed a law increasing the minimum number of adherents for recognizing a religion from 10 to 200. It also outlawed "aggressive action aimed atproselytism", and banned religious activity in schools and all activity by unregistered organizations. It was signed by PresidentKurmanbek Bakiyev on 12 January 2009.[154]
There have been several reported police raids against peaceful minority religious meetings,[155] as well as reports of officials planting false evidence,[156] but also some court decisions in favour of religious minorities.[157]
Manas, anepic poem; the plot revolves around a series of events that coincide with the history of the region in the 9th century, primarily the interaction of the Kyrgyz people with other Turkic and Chinese people.
Illegal, but still practiced, is the tradition ofbride kidnapping.[160] It is debatable whether bride kidnapping is actually traditional. Some of the confusion may stem from the fact thatarranged marriages were traditional, and one of the ways to escape an arranged marriage was to arrange a consensual "kidnapping".[161]
The 40-rayed yellow sun in the center ofthe national flag represent the 40 tribes that once made up the entirety of Kyrgyz culture before the intervention of Russia during the rise of the Soviet Union. The lines inside the sun represent the crown or tündük (Kyrgyz түндүк) of a yurt, a symbol replicated in many facets of Kyrgyz architecture. The red portion of the flag represents peace and openness of Kyrgyzstan.
Under Soviet rule and before 1992, it had theflag of the Soviet Union with two big blue stripes and a white thin stripe in the middle.
In addition to celebrating theNew Year each 1 January, the Kyrgyz observe the traditional New Year festivalNowruz on the vernal equinox. This spring holiday is celebrated with feasts and festivities such as the horse gameUlak Tartish.
This is the list of public holidays in Kyrgyzstan:
1 January – New Year's Day
7 January – Orthodox Christmas
23 February – Fatherland Defender's Day
8 March – Women's Day
21–23 March –Nooruz Mairamy, Persian New Year (spring festival)
Bandy is becoming increasingly popular in the country. The Kyrgyz national team took Kyrgyzstan's first medal at theAsian Winter Games, when they captured the bronze. They played in theBandy World Championship 2012, their first appearance in that tournament.[169]
XXI International Issyk-Kul Sports Games (SCO + CIS) was held in 9–17 September 2022 inBaktuu-Dolonotu village (Issyk-Kul).[170] The first three World Nomad Games were held inCholpon-Ata, Kyrgyzstan. The 6th International Sports Festival Pearl of Kyrgyzstan were held in Issyk-Kul region from 15 June to 3 July 2022.
The traditional national sports reflect the importance ofhorse riding in Kyrgyz culture.
Very popular, as in all ofCentral Asia, isUlak Tartysh, ateam game resembling a cross betweenpolo andrugby in which two teams of riders wrestle for possession of the headless carcass of a goat, which they attempt to deliver across the opposition's goal line, or into the opposition's goal: a big tub or a circle marked on the ground.
Other popular games on horseback include:
At Chabysh – a long-distance horse race, sometimes over a distance of more than 50 km
Jumby Atmai – a large bar of precious metal (the "jumby") is tied to a pole by a thread and contestants attempt to break the thread by shooting at it, while at a gallop
Kyz Kuumai – a man chases a girl in order to win a kiss from her, while she gallops away; if he is not successful she may in turn chase him and attempt to beat him with her "kamchi" (horsewhip)
Oodarysh – two contestants wrestle on horseback, each attempting to be the first to throw the other from his horse
Tyin Emmei – picking up a coin from the ground at full gallop
The school system in Kyrgyzstan also includes primary (grades 1 to 4, some schools have optional 0 grade), secondary (grades 5 to 9) and high (grades 10 to 11) divisions within one school.[171] Children are usually accepted to primary schools at the age of 6 or 7. It is required that every child finishes 9 grades of school and receives a certificate of completion. Grades 10–11 are optional, but it is necessary to complete them to graduate and receive a state-accredited school diploma. To graduate, a student must complete the 11-year school course and pass 4 mandatory state exams in writing, maths, history, and a foreign language.
As of 2023, there were 4.989 primary and secondary schools in the country, including 445 in Bishkek;[172][173] the large majority of these (4.537) werepublic schools.[174] The country also counted 58 higher educational institutions and universities, out of which 42 were public and 16 private.[174]
There are also various Russian-language medium schools in Bishkek, Osh and other areas. Because of the better funding that they receive in comparation with Kyrgyz state schools, many Kyrgyz go there. In March 2021 Russia announced its plans to create approximately 30 new Russian-language schools in Kyrgyzstan. Teachers from Russia are also working here. However, the existence of these schools has been criticised, for reasons such as the fact that Russian language education has flaws compared to the Turkish and American schools in the country, but also because many ethnic Kyrgyz born after Kyrgyz independence in 1991 can't speak Kyrgyz, but only Russian, according to a Bishkek resident.[176]
Transport in Kyrgyzstan is severely constrained by the country's alpine topography. Roads have to snake up steep valleys, cross passes of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) altitude and more, and are subject to frequent mudslides and snow avalanches. Winter travel is close to impossible in many of the more remote and high-altitude regions.
Additional problems come from the fact that many roads and railway lines built during theSoviet period are today intersected by international boundaries, requiring time-consuming border formalities to cross where they are not completely closed.Horses are still a much-used transport option, especially in more rural areas; Kyrgyzstan's road infrastructure is not extensive, so horses are able to reach locations that motor vehicles cannot, and they do not require expensive, importedfuel.
At the end of the Soviet period there were about 50 airports and airstrips in Kyrgyzstan, many of them built primarily to serve military purposes in this border region so close to China. Only a few of them remain in service today. TheKyrgyzstan Air Company provides air transport to China, Russia, and other local countries.
Osh Airport is the main air terminal in the south of the country, with daily connections to Bishkek, and services to Moscow, Krasnoyarsk, Almaty and more international places.
Jalal-Abad Airport is linked to Bishkek by daily flights. The national flag carrier, Kyrgyzstan, operates flights onBAe-146 aircraft. During the summer months, a weekly flight links Jalal-Abad with the Issyk-Kul Region.
Other facilities built during the Soviet era are either closed down, used only occasionally or restricted to military use (e.g.,Kant Air Base near Bishkek, which is used by theRussian Air Force).
Kyrgyzstan appears on the European Union'slist of prohibited countries for the certification of airlines. This means that no airline that is registered in Kyrgyzstan may operate services of any kind within the European Union, due to safety standards that fail to meet European regulations.[180]
TheChüy Valley in the north and theFergana valley in the south were endpoints of theSoviet Union's rail system in Central Asia. Following the emergence of independent post-Soviet states, the rail lines which were built without regard for administrative boundaries have been cut by borders, and traffic is therefore severely curtailed. The small bits of rail lines within Kyrgyzstan, about 370 km (230 mi) (1,520 mm (59.8 in) broad gauge) in total, have little economic value in the absence of the former bulk traffic over long distances to and from such centres asTashkent,Almaty, and the cities of Russia.
In 2022, construction began on a new 186 km extension of the existing railway fromBalykchy toKarakeche, primarily meant to carry coal from mines at Karakeche toBishkek.[181] In June 2023, a railway between Balykchy and Bishkek was officially opened.[182][183]
Highway A363 Bishkek towards Balykchy, Lake Issyk-Kul and Chinese border (Xinjiang)
With support from theAsian Development Bank, a major road linking the north and southwest of the country from the capital city ofBishkek toOsh has recently been completed. This considerably eases communication between the two major population centres of the country—theChüy Valley in the north and theFergana Valley in the South. An offshoot of this road branches off across a 3,500 meterpass into theTalas Valley in the northwest. Plans are now being formulated to build a major road from Osh into China.
total: 34,000 km (21,127 mi) (including 140 km (87 mi) of expressways)
paved: 22,600 km (14,043 mi) (includes some all-weather gravel-surfaced roads)
unpaved: 7,700 km (4,785 mi) (these roads are made of unstabilized earth and are difficult to negotiate in wet weather) (1990)
^Vakulchuk, Roman and Indra Overland (2019) “China's Belt and Road Initiative through the Lens of Central Asia”, in Fanny M. Cheung and Ying-yi Hong (eds)Regional Connection under the Belt and Road Initiative. The Prospects for Economic and Financial Cooperation. London: Routledge, pp. 115–133.
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved20 December 2024.
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