It is a member of the EU and a founding member of theCouncil of Europe and theOECD. The Irish government has followed a policy ofmilitary neutrality through non-alignment since beforeWorld War II, and the country is consequently not a member ofNATO,[17] although it is a member of thePartnership for Peace andcertain aspects of PESCO.Ireland's economy is advanced,[18] with one of Europe's major financial hubs being centred on Dublin. It ranks among the top five wealthiest countries in the world in terms of bothGDP andGNI per capita.[19][20][21][22] After joining the EC, the country's government enacted a series of liberal economic policies that helped to boost economic growth between 1995 and 2007, a time now often referred to as theCeltic Tiger period. A recession and reversal in growth then followed during theGreat Recession, which was exacerbated by the bursting of theIrish property bubble.[23] The Great Recession lasted until 2014, and was followed by a new period of strong economic growth.[24]
The state created in 1922, comprising 26 of the 32counties of Ireland, was "styled and known as the Irish Free State" (Saorstát Éireann).[27] TheConstitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, says that "the name of the State isÉire, or, in the English language, Ireland". Section 2 of theRepublic of Ireland Act 1948 states, "It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland." The 1948 Act does notname the state "Republic of Ireland", because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution.[28]
The government of the United Kingdom used the name "Eire" (without thediacritic) and, from 1949, "Republic of Ireland", for the state.[29] It was not until the 1998Good Friday Agreement, when the state dropped itsclaim to Northern Ireland, that it began calling the state "Ireland".[30][31]
The state is also informally called "the Republic", "Southern Ireland" or "the South";[32] especially when distinguishing the state from the island or when discussingNorthern Ireland ("the North").Irish republicans reserve the name "Ireland" for the whole island[31] and often refer to the state as "the Free State", "the 26 Counties",[31][33] or "the South of Ireland".[34] This is a "response to thepartitionist view [...] that Ireland stops at the border".[35]
From theAct of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, the island of Ireland was part of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. During theGreat Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30%. One million Irish died of starvation and disease and another 1.5 million emigrated, mostly to the United States.[36] This set the pattern of emigration for the century to come, resulting in constant population decline up to the 1960s.[37][38][39]
Home Rule seemed certain when theParliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of theHouse of Lords, andJohn Redmond secured theThird Home Rule Act in 1914. However, theUnionist movement had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill, fearing discrimination and loss of economic and social privileges ifIrish Catholics achieved real political power. In the late 19th and early 20th-century unionism was particularly strong in parts ofUlster, where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island, and where the Protestant population was more prominent, with a majority in four counties.[40] Under the leadership of the Dublin-bornSir Edward Carson of theIrish Unionist Party and the UlstermanSir James Craig of theUlster Unionist Party, unionists became strongly militant, formingUlster Volunteers in order to oppose "the Coercion of Ulster".[41] After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, to avoid rebellion with Ulster, the British Prime MinisterH. H. Asquith introduced anAmending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership. This provided for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded.
Revolution and steps to independence
Damage in Dublin city centre following the 1916Easter Rising
The remainder of theIrish Volunteers, who refused Redmond and opposed any support of the UK, launched an armed insurrection against British rule in the 1916Easter Rising, together with theIrish Citizen Army. This commenced on 24 April 1916 with thedeclaration of independence. After a week of heavy fighting, primarily in Dublin, the surviving rebels were forced to surrender their positions. The majority were imprisoned, with fifteen of the prisoners (including most of the leaders) were executed as traitors to the UK. This includedPatrick Pearse, the spokesman for the rising and who provided the signal to the volunteers to start the rising, as well asJames Connolly, socialist and founder of theIndustrial Workers of the World union and both the Irish and Scottish Labour movements. These events, together with theConscription Crisis of 1918, had a profound effect on changing public opinion in Ireland against the British Government.[43]
In accordance with the treaty, on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governingDominion called the Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann). Under theConstitution of the Irish Free State, theParliament of Northern Ireland had the option to leave the Irish Free State one month later and return to the United Kingdom. During the intervening period, the powers of theParliament of the Irish Free State andExecutive Council of the Irish Free State did not extend to Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland exercised its right under the treaty to leave the new Dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922. It did so by making an address to the King requesting, "that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland."[45] The Irish Free State was aconstitutional monarchysharing a monarch with the United Kingdom and other Dominions of theBritish Commonwealth. The country had agovernor-general (representing the monarch), abicameral parliament, a cabinet called the "Executive Council", and a prime minister called thePresident of the Executive Council.
Éamon de Valera, Irish political leader, pictured outside Ennis Courthouse in 1917. He would later be involved in introducing the 1937Constitution of Ireland.
The Irish Civil War (June 1922 – May 1923) was the consequence of the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the creation of the Irish Free State.[46] Anti-treaty forces, led byÉamon de Valera, objected to the fact that acceptance of the treaty abolished theIrish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the "people have no right to do wrong".[47] They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of theBritish Empire and that members of theFree State Parliament would have to swear what the anti-treaty side saw as an oath of fidelity to the British king. Pro-treaty forces, led byMichael Collins, argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it".[48]
At the start of the war, theIrish Republican Army (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and ananti-treaty IRA. The pro-treaty IRA disbanded and joined the newNational Army. However, because the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure and because of the pro-treaty forces' defensive tactics throughout the war, Michael Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of World War I veterans from the 1922 disbandedIrish regiments of the British Army, capable of overwhelming the anti-treatyists. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. Lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces (often called the Irregulars) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat.[citation needed]
Following a national plebiscite in July 1937, the newConstitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann)came into force on 29 December 1937.[49] This replaced theConstitution of the Irish Free State and declared that the name of the state isÉire, or "Ireland" in the English language.[50] WhileArticles 2 and 3 of the Constitution defined the national territory to be the whole island, they also confined the state's jurisdiction to the area that had been the Irish Free State. The former Irish Free State government had abolished the Office ofGovernor-General in December 1936. Although the constitution established the office ofPresident of Ireland, the question over whether Ireland was a republic remained open. Diplomats were accredited to the king, but the president exercised all internal functions of a head of state.[51] For instance, the President gave assent to new laws with his own authority, without reference to KingGeorge VI who was only an "organ", that was provided for by statute law.
Ireland became a member of theUnited Nations in December 1955, after having been denied membership because of itsneutral stance during the Second World War and not supporting theAllied cause.[56] At the time, joining the UN involved a commitment to using force to deter aggression by one state against another if the UN thought it was necessary.[57]
Interest towards membership of theEuropean Communities (EC) developed in Ireland during the 1950s, with consideration also given to membership of theEuropean Free Trade Area. As the United Kingdom intended on EC membership, Ireland applied for membership in July 1961 due to the substantial economic linkages with the United Kingdom. The founding EC members remained sceptical regarding Ireland's economic capacity, neutrality, and unattractiveprotectionist policy.[58] Many Irish economists and politicians realised that economic policy reform was necessary. The prospect of EC membership became doubtful in 1963 when French President GeneralCharles de Gaulle stated that France opposed Britain's accession, which ceased negotiations with all other candidate countries. In 1969 his successor,Georges Pompidou, was not opposed to British and Irish membership. Negotiations began and in 1972 theTreaty of Accession was signed. Areferendum was held later that year which confirmed Ireland's entry into the bloc, and it finally joined the EC as a member state on 1 January 1973.[59]
The economic crisis of the late 1970s was fuelled by theFianna Fáil government's budget, the abolition of the car tax, excessive borrowing, and global economic instability including the1979 oil crisis.[60] There were significant policy changes from 1989 onwards, with economic reform, tax cuts, welfare reform, an increase in competition, and a ban on borrowing to fund current spending. This policy began in 1989–1992 by the Fianna Fáil/Progressive Democrats government, and continued by the subsequent Fianna Fáil/Labour government andFine Gael/Labour/Democratic Left government. Ireland became one of the world's fastest growing economies by the late 1990s in what was known as theCeltic Tiger period, which lasted until theGreat Recession. Since 2014, Ireland has experienced increased economic activity.[61]
In the Northern Ireland question, the British and Irish governments started to seek a peaceful resolution to the violent conflict involving manyparamilitaries and theBritish Army in Northern Ireland known as "The Troubles". A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, known as theGood Friday Agreement, was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border. As part of the peace settlement, the territorial claim to Northern Ireland inArticles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland was removed by referendum. In its white paper onBrexit the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Good Friday Agreement. With regard to Northern Ireland's status, it said that the UK Government's "clearly-stated preference is to retain Northern Ireland's current constitutional position: as part of the UK, but with strong links to Ireland".[62]
The state extends over an area of about five-sixths (70,273 km2 or 27,133 sq mi) of the island ofIreland (84,421 km2 or 32,595 sq mi), withNorthern Ireland constituting the remainder. The island is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the northeast by theNorth Channel. To the east, theIrish Sea connects to the Atlantic Ocean viaSt George's Channel and theCeltic Sea to the southwest.
The western landscape mostly consists of rugged cliffs, hills and mountains. The central lowlands are extensively covered with glacial deposits of clay and sand, as well as significant areas ofbogland and several lakes. The highest point isCarrauntoohil (1,038.6 m or 3,407 ft), located in theMacGillycuddy's Reeks mountain range in the southwest.River Shannon, which traverses the central lowlands, is the longest river in Ireland at 386 kilometres or 240 miles in length. The west coast is more rugged than the east, with numerous islands,peninsulas,headlands andbays.
Ireland is one of the least forested countries in Europe.[63] Until the end of theMiddle Ages, the land was heavily forested. Native species includedeciduous trees such asoak,ash,hazel,birch,alder,willow,aspen,elm,rowan andhawthorn, as well asevergreen trees suchScots pine,yew,holly andstrawberry trees.[64] The growth ofblanket bog and the extensive clearing of woodland for farming are believed to be the main causes ofdeforestation.[65] Today, only about 10% of Ireland is woodland,[66] most of which is non-nativeconiferplantations, and only 2% of which is native woodland.[67][68] The average woodland cover in European countries is over 33%.[66] According toCoillte, a state-owned forestry business, the country's climate gives Ireland one of the fastest growth rates for forests in Europe.[69]Hedgerows, which are traditionally used to define land boundaries, are an important substitute for woodland habitat, providing refuge for native wild flora and a wide range of insect, bird and mammal species.[70] It is home to two terrestrial ecoregions:Celtic broadleaf forests andNorth Atlantic moist mixed forests.[71]
Agriculture accounts for about 64% of the total land area.[72] This has resulted in limited land to preserve natural habitats, in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements.[73] The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern agricultural methods, such aspesticide andfertiliser use, has placed pressure onbiodiversity.[74]
TheAtlantic Ocean and the warming influence of theGulf Stream affect weather patterns in Ireland.[75] Temperatures differ regionally, with central and eastern areas tending to be more extreme. However, due to atemperateoceanic climate, temperatures are seldom lower than −5 °C (23 °F) in winter or higher than 26 °C (79 °F) in summer.[76] The highest temperature recorded in Ireland was 33.3 °C (91.9 °F) on 26 June 1887 atKilkenny Castle in Kilkenny, while the lowest temperature recorded was −19.1 °C (−2.4 °F) atMarkree Castle in Sligo.[77] Rainfall is more prevalent during winter months and less so during the early months of summer. Southwestern areas experience the most rainfall as a result of south westerly winds, whileDublin receives the least. Sunshine duration is highest in the southeast of the country.[75] The far north and west are two of the windiest regions in Europe, with great potential forwind energy generation.[78]
Ireland normally gets between 1100 and 1600 hours of sunshine each year, most areas averaging between 3.25 and 3.75 hours a day. The sunniest months are May and June, which average between 5 and 6.5 hours per day over most of the country. The extreme southeast gets most sunshine, averaging over 7 hours a day in early summer. December is the dullest month, with an average daily sunshine ranging from about 1 hour in the north to almost 2 hours in the extreme southeast. The sunniest summer in the 100 years from 1881 to 1980 was 1887, according to measurements made at the Phoenix Park in Dublin; 1980 was the dullest.[79]
The President serves ashead of state, is elected for a seven-year term, and may be re-elected once. The President is primarily afigurehead, but is entrusted with certain constitutional powers with the advice of theCouncil of State. The office has absolute discretion in some areas, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court for a judgment on its constitutionality.[81]Michael D. Higgins became the ninth President of Ireland on 11 November 2011.[82]
TheTaoiseach (Prime Minister) serves as thehead of government and is appointed by the President upon the nomination of theDáil. MostTaoisigh have served as the leader of the political party that gains the most seats in national elections. It has become customary forcoalitions to form a government, as there has not been a single-party government since 1989.[83]
Thegovernment is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members can be selected from theSeanad, and theTaoiseach,Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) andMinister for Finance must be members of theDáil. The Dáil must be dissolved within five years of its first meeting following the previous election,[84] and a general election for members of the Dáil must take place no later than thirty days after the dissolution. In accordance with theConstitution of Ireland, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current government is a coalition ofFianna Fáil,Fine Gael, and someindependents withMicheál Martin of Fianna Fáil as Taoiseach andSimon Harris of Fine Gael as Tánaiste. Opposition parties in the currentDáil areSinn Féin, theLabour Party,People Before Profit–Solidarity,Social Democrats,Aontú,The Green Party as well as a number of independents.
Ireland has been amember state of the European Union since 1973. Citizens of the United Kingdom can freely enter the country without a passport due to theCommon Travel Area, which is a passport-free zone comprising the islands of Ireland, Great Britain, theIsle of Man and theChannel Islands. However, some identification is required at airports and seaports.
Local authorities are responsible for matters such as planning, local roads, sanitation, and libraries. The breaching of county boundaries should be avoided as far as practicable in drawingDáil constituencies. Counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies, some of more than one county, but generally do not cross county boundaries. The counties are grouped into threeregions, each with a Regional Assembly composed of members delegated by the various county and city councils in the region. The regions do not have any direct administrative role as such, but they serve for planning, coordination and statistical purposes.
TheFour Courts, completed in 1802, is the principal building for civil courts.
Ireland has acommon lawlegal system with a written constitution that provides for aparliamentary democracy. The court system consists of theSupreme Court, theCourt of Appeal, theHigh Court, theCircuit Court and theDistrict Court, all of which apply theIrish law and hear both civil and criminal matters. Trials for serious offences must usually be held before ajury. The High Court, Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court have authority, by means ofjudicial review, to determine the compatibility of laws and activities of other institutions of the state with the constitution and the law. Except in exceptional circumstances, court hearings must occur in public.[87][88]
TheGarda Síochána (lit. Guardians of the Peace), more commonly referred to as the Gardaí, is the state's civilian police force. The force is responsible for all aspects of civil policing, both in terms of territory and infrastructure. It is headed by the Garda Commissioner, who is appointed by the Government. Most uniformed members do not routinely carryfirearms. Standard policing is traditionally carried out by uniformed officers equipped only with abaton andpepper spray.[89]
TheMilitary Police is the corps of theIrish Army responsible for the provision of policing service personnel and providing a military police presence to forces while on exercise and deployment. In wartime, additional tasks include the provision of a traffic control organisation to allow rapid movement of military formations to their mission areas. Other wartime roles include control ofprisoners of war and refugees.[90]
Ireland'scitizenship laws relate to "the island of Ireland", including islands and seas, thereby extending them toNorthern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. Therefore, anyone born in Northern Ireland who meets the requirements for being an Irish citizen, such as birth on the island of Ireland to an Irish or British citizen parent or a parent who is entitled to live in Northern Ireland or the Republic without restriction on their residency,[91] may exercise an entitlement to Irish citizenship, such as anIrish passport.[92]
In 2024, Ireland was second only toIceland in the list of the world's most peaceful countries.[16]
Foreign relations are substantially influenced by membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United Kingdom and United States are also important.[93] It held thePresidency of the Council of the European Union on six occasions, most recently from January to June 2013.[94]
Ireland tends towards independence in foreign policy; thus the country is not a member ofNATO and has alongstanding policy of military neutrality. This policy has led to theIrish Defence Forces contributing to peace-keeping missions with the United Nations since 1960, including during theCongo Crisis and subsequently inCyprus,Lebanon andBosnia and Herzegovina.[95]
Ireland is aneutral country,[101] and has "triple-lock" rules governing the participation of Irish troops in conflict zones, whereby approval must be given by the UN, theDáil and Government.[102] Accordingly, its military role is limited to national self-defence and participation inUnited Nations peacekeeping.
The Irish Defence Forces (Óglaigh na hÉireann) are made up of theArmy,Naval Service,Air Corps andReserve Defence Force. It is small but well equipped, with almost 10,000 full-time military personnel and over 2,000 in reserve.[103][104] Daily deployments of the Defence Forces coveraid to civil power operations, protection and patrol of Irish territorial waters andEEZ by the Irish Naval Service, and UN, EU andPfP peace-keeping missions. By 1996, over 40,000 Irish service personnel had served in international UN peacekeeping missions.[105]
The Irish Air Corps is the air component of the Defence Forces and operates sixteen fixed wing aircraft and eight helicopters. The Irish Naval Service is Ireland's navy, and operates sixpatrol ships, and smaller numbers of inflatable boats and training vessels, and has armed boarding parties capable of seizing a ship and a special unit offrogmen. The military includes the Reserve Defence Forces (Army Reserve andNaval Service Reserve) for part-time reservists. Ireland's special forces include theArmy Ranger Wing, which trains and operates with international special operations units. The President is the formal Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces, but in practice these Forces answer to the Government via theMinister for Defence.[106]
Ireland is an open economy and ranks first for "high-value"foreign direct investment (FDI) flows.[108] Ireland ranks 5th of 187 (IMF) and 6th of 175 (World Bank) inGDP per capita as well as ranking in the top ten forGNI per capita. An alternative metric, known asmodified gross national income (GNI), was created by theCentral Statistics Office and is used by the Irish government to give a view of activity in the domestic economy after stripping out large multinational export movements which can often relate to intangible assets.[109] This is particularly relevant in Ireland's economy, as GDP disproportionately includes income from non-Irish owned companies, which often flows out of Ireland.[110] Foreign multinationals are the main driver of Ireland's economy, employing a quarter of the private sector workforce,[111] and paying 80% of Irish corporate taxes.[112][113][114] 14 of Ireland's top 20 firms (by 2017 turnover) are US-based multinationals[115] and 80% of foreign multinationals in Ireland are from the US.[116][117][115]
Ireland is part of the EU (dark blue & purple) andeurozone (dark blue).
Following theGreat Recession and the bursting of theIrish property bubble, the country officially exited recession in 2010, driven by a growth in exports from US multinationals in Ireland.[119] However, due to a rise in the cost of public borrowing due to government guarantees of private banking debt, the Irish government accepted an €85 billion programme of assistance from the EU,International Monetary Fund (IMF) and bilateral loans from the United Kingdom, Sweden and Denmark.[120] Following three years of contraction, the economy grew by 0.7% in 2011 and 0.9% in 2012.[121] The unemployment rate was 14.7% in 2012, including 18.5% among recent immigrants.[122] In March 2016 theunemployment rate was reported by theCSO to be 8.6%, down from a peak unemployment rate of 15.1% in February 2012.[123] In addition to unemployment, net emigration from Ireland between 2008 and 2013 totalled 120,100,[124] or some 2.6% of the total population according to theCensus of Ireland 2011. One-third of the emigrants were aged between 15 and 24.[124] By November 2022, unemployment had fallen back to 4.4%.[125][needs update]
Ireland exited its EU-IMF bailout programme on 15 December 2013.[126] Having implemented budget cuts, reforms and sold assets, Ireland was again able to access debt markets. Since then, Ireland has been able to sell long term bonds at record rates.[127] However, the stabilisation of the Irish credit bubble required a large transfer of debt from the private sector balance sheet (highest OECD leverage), to the public sector balance sheet (almost unleveraged, pre-crisis), via Irish bank bailouts and public deficit spending.[128][129] The transfer of this debt means that Ireland, in 2017, still has one of the highest levels of both public sector indebtedness, and private sector indebtedness, in the EU-28/OECD.[130][131][132][133][134][135]
Ireland became one of the main destinations for US pharmaceuticalcorporate tax inversions from 2009 to 2016.[136][137] The country has also become the largest foreign location for large US technology multinationals (i.e. Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook), which delivered a GDP growth rate of 26.3% (and GNP growth rate of 18.7%) in 2015. This growth was subsequently shown to be due to Apple restructuring its "double Irish" subsidiary (Apple Sales International, currently under threat of a€13bn EU "illegal state aid" fine for preferential tax treatment).
Taxation policy
The transformation of Ireland's tax policy started with the creation of a 10% low-taxspecial economic zone, called theInternational Financial Services Centre (IFSC), in 1987.[138] In 2003, the IFSC was expanded nationwide with the reduction of Irish corporation tax from 32% to 12.5%.[139][140] This accelerated the later stages of Ireland's transition from a predominantly agricultural economy into aknowledge andservice economy focused on attracting mainly US multinationals from high-tech, life sciences, and financial services industries seeking to avail of Ireland's low corporation tax rates and favourablecorporate tax system.
The multinational tax planning schemes corporations use in Ireland have materially affected Irish economic statistics. This reached a climax with whatPaul Krugman termedleprechaun economics with double digit GDP growth rates in 2015 relating largely to Apple restructuring its Irish subsidiaries. TheCentral Bank of Ireland introduced additional statistics based on a modified gross national income, to remove these distortions.[141][142][143][144][145]
From the creation of theIFSC, the country experienced strong and sustained economic growth which fuelled a dramatic rise in Irish consumer borrowing and spending, and Irish construction and investment, which became known as theCeltic Tiger period.[146][147] By 2007, Ireland had the highest private sector debt in the OECD with a household debt-to-disposable income ratio of 190%. Global capital markets, which had financed Ireland's build-up of debt in theCeltic Tiger period by enabling Irish banks to borrow in excess of the domestic deposit base to over 180% at peak,[148] withdrew support in the2008 financial crisis. Their withdrawal from the over-borrowed Irish credit system would precipitate a deep Irish property correction which then led to thePost-2008 Irish banking crisis.[149][146]
Althoughmultinational corporations dominate Ireland's export sector, exports from other sources also contribute significantly to the national income and particularly to employment and local economies outside of the major cities. The activities of multinational companies based in Ireland have made it one of the largest exporters of pharmaceutical agents, medical devices and software-related goods and services in the world. Ireland's exports also relate to the activities of large Irish companies (such asRyanair,Kerry Group,Smurfit Kappa) and increasingly Irish based aircraft lessors such asAvolon.
The country exports mineral resources including zinc and lead concentrates and also has significant deposits ofgypsum and smaller quantities of copper,aluminium oxide, silver, gold,barite, anddolomite.[74]
Tourism in Ireland contributes about 4% of GDP and is a significant source of employment.
Other goods exports include agri-food such as cattle, beef, sheep and dairy products.
Ireland's major imports include data processing equipment, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products, textiles, and clothing.Financial services provided by multinational corporations based at theIrish Financial Services Centre also contribute to Irish exports.
The EU is by far the country's largest trading partner, accounting for 57.9% of exports and 60.7% of imports. Prior toBrexit, the United Kingdom was the most important trading partner within the EU, accounting for 15.4% of exports and 32.1% of imports. Outside the EU, the United States accounted for 23.2% of exports and 14.1% of imports in 2010.[160]
ESB,Bord Gáis Energy andAirtricity are the three main electricity and gas suppliers in Ireland. There are 19.82 billion cubic metres of proven reserves of gas.[74][161] Natural gas extraction previously occurred at theKinsale Head until its exhaustion. TheCorrib gas field was due to come on stream in 2013/14. In 2012, theBarryroe field was confirmed to have up to 1.6 billion barrels of oil in reserve, with between 160 and 600 million recoverable.[162] That could provide for Ireland's entire energy needs for up to 13 years, when it is developed in 2015/16.
There have been significant efforts to increase the use of renewable and sustainable forms of energy in Ireland, particularly inwind power, with 3,000 MegaWatts[163] ofwind farms being constructed, some for the purpose of export.[164] TheSustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) has estimated that 6.5% of Ireland's 2011 energy requirements were produced by renewable sources.[165] The SEAI has also reported an increase in energy efficiency in Ireland with a 28% reduction in carbon emissions per house from 2005 to 2013.[166]
In 2021, Ireland was the 24th largest wind energy producer in the world and the 3rd ranked in 2020 on a per capita basis.[167]
The country's three maininternational airports atDublin,Shannon andCork serve many European and intercontinental routes with scheduled andchartered flights. The London to Dublin air route is the ninth busiest international air route in the world, and also the busiest international air route in Europe, with 14,500 flights between the two in 2017.[168][169] In 2015, 4.5 million people took the route, at that time, the world's second-busiest.[168]Aer Lingus is the flag carrier of Ireland, althoughRyanair is the country's largest airline. Ryanair is Europe's largest low-cost carrier,[170] the second largest in terms of passenger numbers, and the world's largest in terms of international passenger numbers.[171]
Genetic research suggests that the earliest settlers migrated fromIberia following the most recentice age.[175] After theMesolithic,Neolithic andBronze Age, migrants introduced aCeltic language and culture. Migrants from the two latter eras still represent the genetic heritage of mostIrish people.[176][177]Gaelic tradition expanded and became the dominant form over time. Irish people are a combination of Gaelic,Norse,Anglo-Norman, French, and British ancestry.
The population of Ireland stood at 5,149,139 in 2022, an increase of 8% since 2016.[178] In 2011, Ireland had the highest birth rate in the European Union (16 births per 1,000 of population).[179] In 2014, 36.3% of births were to unmarried women.[180] Annual population growth rates exceeded 2% during the 2002–2006 intercensal period, which was attributed to high rates ofnatural increase and immigration.[181] This rate declined somewhat during the subsequent 2006–2011 intercensal period, with an average annual percentage change of 1.6%. Thetotal fertility rate (TFR) in 2017 was estimated at 1.80 children born per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.2 children born per woman in 1850.[182] In 2018 themedian age of the Irish population was 37.1 years.[183]
At the time of the 2022 census, the number of non-Irish nationals was recorded at 631,785. This represents an 8% increase from the2016 census figure of 535,475.[184] The five largest sources of non-Irish nationals were Poland (93,680), the UK (83,347), India (45,449), Romania (43,323), Lithuania (31,177), and Latvia (27,338) respectively. The non-Irish nationalities which saw the largest increase from 2016 were India (+33,984), Romania (+14,137), Brazil (+13,698), Ukraine (+10,006). The non-Irish nationalities which saw the largest decrease from 2016 were Poland (−28,835), UK (−19,766), Lithuania (−5,375), Latvia (−1,633), and Slovakia (−1,117).[185]
Percentage of population speaking Irish daily (outside the education system) in the2011 census
The Irish Constitution describes Irish as the "national language" and the "first official language", but English (the "second official language") is the dominant language. In the2016 census, about 1.75 million people (40% of the population) said they were able to speak Irish but, of those, under 74,000 spoke it on a daily basis.[187] Irish is spoken as a community language only in a small number of rural areas mostly in the west and south of the country, collectively known as theGaeltacht. Except in Gaeltacht regions, road signs are usually bilingual.[188] Most public notices and print media are in English only. While the state is officially bilingual, citizens can often struggle to access state services in Irish and most government publications are not available in both languages, even though citizens have the right to deal with the state in Irish. Irish language media include the TV channelTG4, the radio stationRTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta and online newspaperTuairisc.ie. In theIrish Defence Forces, all foot and arms drill commands are given in the Irish language.
As a result of immigration,Polish is the most widely spoken language in Ireland after English, with Irish as the third most spoken.[189] Several other Central European languages (namely Czech, Hungarian and Slovak), as well asBaltic languages (Lithuanian and Latvian) are also spoken on a day-to-day basis. Other languages spoken in Ireland includeShelta, spoken by Irish Travellers, and a dialect ofScots is spoken by someUlster Scots people in Donegal.[190] Most secondary school students choose to learn one or two foreign languages. Languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian. Some secondary schools also offerAncient Greek,Hebrew andLatin. The study of Irish is generally compulsory for Leaving Certificate students, but some may qualify for an exemption in some circumstances, such as learning difficulties or entering the country after age 11.[191]
Religious freedom is constitutionally provided for in Ireland, and the country's constitution has beensecular since 1973.Christianity is the predominant religion, and while Ireland remains a predominantly Catholic country, the percentage of the population who identified as Catholic on the census has declined significantly in the early 21st century, from 84.2 percent in the2011 census to 69.1 percent in 2022.[192][193] Other results from the2016 census were: 4.2%Protestant, 1.3% Orthodox, 1.3% Muslim, and 9.8% having no religion.[194] According to aGeorgetown University study, before 2000 the country had one of the highest rates of regularmass attendance in theWestern world.[195]While daily attendance was 13% in 2006, there was a reduction in weekly attendance from 81% in 1990 to 48% in 2006; the decline was reported as stabilising, though.[196] In 2011, it was reported that weekly mass attendance in Dublin was 18% and even lower among younger generations.[197]
TheChurch of Ireland, at 2.7% of the population, is the second largest Christian denomination. Membership declined throughout the twentieth century but experienced an increase early in the 21st century alongside other Christian denominations. Other significant Protestant denominations are thePresbyterian Church andMethodist Church. Immigration has contributed to a growth inHindu and Muslim populations. In percentage terms, as of the 2006 census,Orthodox Christianity andIslam are the fastest growing religions with increases of 100% and 70% respectively.[198]
Ireland's patron saints areSaint Patrick,Saint Bridget, andSaint Columba; Saint Patrick is commonly recognised as the primary patron saint.[199]Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated on 17 March in Ireland and abroad as the Irish national day with parades and other celebrations.
As with other traditionally Catholic European states, such as Spain and Italy,[200] Ireland underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century. In 1972, the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups was deleted by theFifth Amendment in a referendum. Article 44 remains in the Constitution: "The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God. It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion." The article also establishes freedom of religion, prohibits endowment of any religion, prohibits the state from religious discrimination, and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner.
Ireland has three levels of education: primary, secondary and higher education. The education systems are largely under the direction of the Government via theMinister for Education. Recognised primary and secondary schools must adhere to the curriculum established by the relevant authorities. Education is compulsory between the ages of six and fifteen years, and all children up to the age of eighteen must complete the first three years of secondary, including one sitting of theJunior Certificate examination.[204]
There are approximately 3,300 primary schools in Ireland.[205] The vast majority (92%) are under the patronage of the Catholic Church. Schools run by religious organisations, but receiving public money and recognition, cannot discriminate against pupils based upon religion or lack thereof. A sanctioned system of preference does exist, where students of a particular religion may be accepted before those who do not share the ethos of the school, in a case where a school's quota has already been reached.
TheLeaving Certificate, which is taken after two years of study, is the final examination in the secondary school system. Those intending to pursue higher education normally take this examination, with access to third-level courses generally depending on results obtained from the best six subjects taken, on a competitive basis.[206] Third-level education awards are conferred by at least 38 Higher Education Institutions – this includes the constituent or linked colleges of seven universities, plus other designated institutions of the Higher Education and Training Awards Council. According to the 2022 US News rankings, Ireland is among the top twenty best countries for education.[207]
TheProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by theOECD, currently ranks Ireland as having the fourth highest reading score, ninth highest science score and thirteenth highest mathematics score, among OECD countries, in its 2012 assessment.[208] In 2012, Irish students aged 15 years had the second highest levels of reading literacy in the EU.[209] Ireland also has 0.747 of the World's top 500 Universities per capita, which ranks the country in 8th place in the world.[210] Primary, secondary and higher (university/college) level education are all free in Ireland for all EU citizens.[211] There are charges to cover student services and examinations.
In addition, 37 percent of Ireland's population has a university orcollege degree, which is among the highest percentages in the world.[212][213]
Healthcare in Ireland is provided by both public and private healthcare providers.[214] TheMinister for Health has responsibility for setting overall health service policy. Every resident of Ireland is entitled to receive health care through the public health care system, which is managed by theHealth Service Executive and funded by general taxation. A person may be required to pay a subsidised fee for certain health care received; this depends on income, age, illness or disability. All maternity services are provided free of charge and children up to the age of 6 months. Emergency care is provided to patients who present to a hospital emergency department. However, visitors to emergency departments in non-emergency situations who are not referred by theirGP may incur a fee of €100. In some circumstances this fee is not payable or may be waived.[215]
Anyone holding aEuropean Health Insurance Card is entitled to free maintenance and treatment in public beds in Health Service Executive and voluntary hospitals. Outpatient services are also provided for free. However, the majority of patients on median incomes or above are required to pay subsidised hospital charges. Private health insurance is available to the population for those who want to avail of it.
The averagelife expectancy in Ireland in 2021 was 82.4 years (OECD list), with 80.5 years for men and 84.3 years for women.[216][217] It has the highest birth rate in the EU (16.8 births per 1,000 inhabitants, compared to an EU average of 10.7)[218] and a very low infant mortality rate (3.5 per 1,000live births). The Irish healthcare system ranked 13th out of 34 European countries in 2012 according to the European Health Consumer Index produced byHealth Consumer Powerhouse.[219] The same report ranked the Irish healthcare system as having the 8th best health outcomes but only the 21st most accessible system in Europe.
Ireland's culture was for centuries predominantlyGaelic, and it remains one of the six principalCeltic nations. Following theAnglo-Norman invasion in the 12th century, and gradual British conquest and colonisation beginning in the 16th century, Ireland became influenced by English and Scottish culture. Subsequently, Irish culture, though distinct in many aspects, shares characteristics with the rest of theAnglosphere,Catholic Europe, and other Celtic regions. TheIrish diaspora, one of the world's largest and most dispersed, has contributed to the globalisation of Irish culture, producing many prominent figures in art, music, and science.
The history ofIrish theatre begins with the expansion of the English administration in Dublin during the early 17th century, and since then, Ireland has significantly contributed to English drama. In its early history, theatrical productions in Ireland tended to serve political purposes, but as more theatres opened and the popular audience grew, a more diverse range of entertainments were staged. Many Dublin-based theatres developed links with their London equivalents, and British productions frequently found their way to the Irish stage. However, most Irish playwrights went abroad to establish themselves. In the 18th century,Oliver Goldsmith andRichard Brinsley Sheridan were two of the most successful playwrights on the London stage at that time. At the beginning of the 20th century, theatre companies dedicated to the staging of Irish plays and the development of writers, directors and performers began to emerge, which allowed many Irish playwrights to learn their trade and establish their reputations in Ireland rather than in Britain or the United States. Following in the tradition of acclaimed practitioners, principallyOscar Wilde, Literature Nobel Prize laureatesGeorge Bernard Shaw (1925) andSamuel Beckett (1969), playwrights such asSeán O'Casey,Brian Friel,Sebastian Barry,Brendan Behan,Conor McPherson andBilly Roche have gained popular success.[221] Other Irish playwrights of the 20th century includeDenis Johnston,Thomas Kilroy,Tom Murphy,Hugh Leonard,Frank McGuinness, andJohn B. Keane.
Irish traditional music has remained vibrant, despite globalising cultural forces, and retains many traditional aspects. It has influenced various music genres, such as American country and roots music, and to some extent modern rock. It has occasionally been blended with styles such as rock and roll and punk rock. Ireland has also produced many internationally known artists in other genres, such as rock, pop, jazz, and blues. Ireland's best selling musical act is the rock bandU2, who have sold 170 million copies of their albums worldwide since their formation in 1976.[224]
There are a number of classical music ensembles around the country, such as theRTÉ Performing Groups.[225] Ireland also has two opera organisations:Irish National Opera in Dublin, and the annualWexford Opera Festival, which promotes lesser-known operas, takes place during October and November.
Irish dance can broadly be divided intosocial dance andperformance dance. Irish social dance can be divided intocéilí and set dancing. Irishset dances arequadrilles, danced by 4 couples arranged in a square, whilecéilí dances are danced by variedformations of couples of 2 to 16 people. There are also many stylistic differences between these two forms. Irish social dance is a living tradition, and variations in particular dances are found across the country. In some places dances are deliberately modified and new dances are choreographed. Performance dance is traditionally referred to asstepdance.Irish stepdance, popularised by the showRiverdance, is notable for its rapid leg movements, with the body and arms being kept largely stationary. The solo stepdance is generally characterised by a controlled but not rigid upper body, straight arms, and quick, precise movements of the feet. The solo dances can either be in "soft shoe" or "hard shoe".
Christianity introduced simplemonastic houses, such asClonmacnoise,Skellig Michael andScattery Island. A stylistic similarity has been remarked between thesedouble monasteries and those of theCopts of Egypt.[234] Gaelic kings and aristocrats occupiedringforts orcrannógs.[235] Church reforms during the 12th century via theCistercians stimulated further continental influence, with theRomanesque styledMellifont,Boyle andTintern abbeys.[236] Gaelic settlement had been limited to the Monastic proto-towns, such asKells, where the current street pattern preserves the original circular settlement outline to some extent.[237] Significant urban settlements only developed following the period of Viking invasions.[235] The major Hiberno-NorseLongphorts were located on the coast, but with minor inland fluvial settlements, such as the eponymousLongford.
Castles were built by theAnglo-Normans during the late 12th century, such asDublin Castle andKilkenny Castle,[238] and the concept of the planned walled trading town was introduced, which gained legal status and several rights by grant of aCharter underFeudalism. These charters specifically governed the design of these towns.[239] Two significant waves of planned town formation followed, the first being the 16th- and 17th-century plantation towns, which were used as a mechanism for theTudor English kings to suppress local insurgency, followed by 18th-century landlord towns.[240] Surviving Norman founded planned towns includeDrogheda andYoughal; plantation towns includePortlaoise andPortarlington; well-preserved 18th-century planned towns includeWestport andBallinasloe. These episodes of planned settlement account for many of the present-day towns throughout the country.
Brick architecture of multi-storey buildings inMerrion Square, Dublin
Supported by theIrish Film Board, the Irish film industry grew significantly since the 1990s, with the promotion of indigenous films as well as the attraction of international productions likeBraveheart andSaving Private Ryan.[252]
A large number of regional and local radio stations are available countrywide. A survey showed that a consistent 85% of adults listen to a mixture of national, regional and local stations on a daily basis.[253]RTÉ Radio operates four national stations,Radio 1,2fm,Lyric fm, andRnaG. It also operates four national DAB radio stations. There are two independent national stations:Today FM andNewstalk.
Ireland has a traditionally competitive print media, which is divided into daily national newspapers and weekly regional newspapers, as well as national Sunday editions. The strength of the British press is a unique feature of the Irish print media scene, with the availability of a wide selection of British published newspapers and magazines.[252]
Eurostat reported that 82% of Irish households had Internet access in 2013 compared to theEU average of 79% but only 67% had broadband access.[254]
Irish cuisine was traditionally based on meat and dairy products, supplemented with vegetables and seafood.Examples of popular Irish cuisine includeboxty,colcannon,coddle,stew, andbacon and cabbage. Ireland is known for thefull Irish breakfast, which involves a fried or grilled meal generally consisting of rashers, egg, sausage, white and black pudding, and fried tomato. Apart from the influence by European and international dishes, there has been an emergence of a new Irish cuisine based on traditional ingredients handled in new ways.[255] This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish, oysters, mussels and other shellfish, and the wide range of hand-made cheeses that are now being produced across the country. Shellfish have increased in popularity, especially due to the high quality shellfish available from thecountry's coastline. The most popular fish includesalmon andcod. Traditional breads includesoda bread andwheaten bread.Barmbrack is ayeastedbread with addedsultanas andraisins, traditionally eaten onHalloween.[256]
Popular everyday beverages among the Irish includetea andcoffee. Alcoholic drinks associated with Ireland includePoitín and the world-famousGuinness, which is adry stout that originated in the brewery ofArthur Guinness atSt. James's Gate in Dublin.Irish whiskey is also popular throughout the country and comes in various forms, including single malt, single grain, and blended whiskey.[255]
Irelandranks fifth in the world in terms ofgender equality.[269] In 2011, Ireland was ranked the mostcharitable country in Europe, and second most charitable in the world.[270] Contraception was controlled in Ireland until 1979, however, the receding influence of theCatholic Church has led to an increasinglysecularised society.[271] A constitutional ban ondivorce was lifted following areferendum in 1995. Divorce rates in Ireland are very low compared to European Union averages (0.7 divorced people per 1,000 population in 2011) while the marriage rate in Ireland is slightly above the European Union average (4.6 marriages per 1,000 population per year in 2012).Abortion had been banned throughout the period of the Irish state, first through provisions of theOffences Against the Person Act 1861 and later by theProtection of Life During Pregnancy Act 2013. The right to life of the unborn was protected in the constitution by theEighth Amendment in 1983; this provision was removed following areferendum, and replaced it with a provision allowing legislation to regulate the termination of pregnancy. TheHealth (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act 2018 passed later that year provided for abortion generally during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, and in specified circumstances after that date.[272]
Ireland became the first country in the world to introduce an environmental levy forplastic shopping bags in 2002 and a publicsmoking ban in 2004.Recycling in Ireland is carried out extensively, and Ireland has the second highest rate of packaging recycling in theEuropean Union. It was the first country in Europe to banincandescent lightbulbs in 2008 and the first EU country to ban in-store tobacco advertising and product display in 2009.[280][281] In 2015, Ireland became the second country in the world to introduceplain cigarette packaging.[282] Despite the above measures to discourage tobacco use, smoking rates in Ireland remain at approximately 15.4% as of 2020.[283]
The state shares many symbols with theisland of Ireland. These include the colours green andblue, animals such as theIrish wolfhound andstags, structures such asround towers andceltic crosses, and designs such asCeltic knots andspirals. Theshamrock, a type ofclover, has been a national symbol of Ireland since the 17th century when it became customary to wear it as a symbol onSt. Patrick's Day. These symbols are used by state institutions as well as private bodies in the Republic of Ireland.
Theflag of Ireland is atricolour of green, white and orange. The flag originates with theYoung Ireland movement of the mid-19th century but was not popularised until its use during theEaster Rising of 1916.[284] The colours represent theGaelic tradition (green) and the followers ofWilliam of Orange in Ireland (orange), with white representing the aspiration for peace between them.[285] It was adopted as the flag of the Irish Free State in 1922 and continues to be used as the sole flag and ensign of the state. Anaval jack, a green flag with a yellow harp, is set out in Defence Forces Regulations and flown from the bows of warships in addition to the national flag in limited circumstances (e.g. when a ship is not underway). It is based on the unofficialgreen ensign of Ireland used in the 18th and 19th centuries and the traditional green flag of Ireland dating from the 16th century.[286]
Like the national flag, the national anthem,Amhrán na bhFiann (English:A Soldier's Song), has its roots in the Easter Rising, when the song was sung by the rebels. Although originally published in English in 1912,[287] the song was translated into Irish in 1923 and the Irish-language version is more commonly sung today.[287] The song was officially adopted as the anthem of the Irish Free State in 1926 and continues as the national anthem of the state.[288] The first four bars of the chorus followed by the last five comprise thepresidential salute.
^Article 8 of the Constitution states that Irish is "the national language" and "the first official language", and that English is "a second official language".
^Prior to 2002, Ireland used theIrish pound as its circulated currency. The euro was introduced as an accounting currency in 1999.
^The.eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.
^L. Prakke; C. A. J. M. Kortmann; J. C. E. van den Brandhof (2004),Constitutional Law of 15 EU Member States, Deventer: Kluwer, p. 429,ISBN9013012558,Since 1937 Ireland has been a parliamentary republic, in which ministers appointed by the president depend on the confidence of parliament
^Stüber, Karin (1998).The Historical Morphology of n-Stems in Celtic (Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics; III). Department of Old Irish, National University of Ireland, Maynooth. p. 95.ISBN978-0-901519-54-2.
^Zair, Nicholas (2012).The reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeals in Celtic. Leiden: Brill. p. 107.ISBN978-90-04-22539-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^Oliver, J.D.B.,What's in a Name, inTiley, John, ed. (2004).Studies in the History of Tax Law. Hart Publishing. pp. 181–3.ISBN1841134732.Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved12 February 2015. Note: the author uses "Éire", with the diacritic.
^abcDaly, Mary E. (2007). "The Irish Free State/Éire/Republic of Ireland/Ireland: "A Country by Any Other Name"?".Journal of British Studies.46 (1):72–90.doi:10.1086/508399.ISSN0021-9371.
^Acciano, Reuben (2005).Western Europe. Lonely Planet. p. 616.ISBN1740599276.Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved12 February 2015.
^T. Garvin,1922: the birth of Irish democracy, Gill & Macmillan: Dublin, 2005. Cottrell, Peter (2008).The Irish Civil War 1922–23. Osprey Publishing. p. 85.ISBN978-1-84603-270-7.Irish voters approved a new constitution,Bunreacht na hÉireann, in 1937 renaming the country Éire or simply Ireland. Whelan, Darius (June 2005)."Guide to Irish Law".Archived from the original on 5 September 2009. Retrieved11 September 2009.This Constitution, which remains in force today, renamed the stateIreland (Article 4) and established four main institutions – the President, the Oireachtas (Parliament), the Government and the Courts. John T. Koch, Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO: Santa Barbara, 2006.
^Daly, Mary E. (January 2007)."The Irish Free State/Éire/Republic of Ireland/Ireland: "A Country by Any Other Name"?".Journal of British Studies.46 (1):72–90.doi:10.1086/508399.ISSN0021-9371.JSTOR10.1086/508399.After the enactment of the 1936 External Relations Act and the 1937 Constitution, Ireland's only remaining link with the crown had been the accreditation of diplomats. The president of Ireland was the head of state. When opposition deputies asked de Valera whether Ireland was a republic—a favorite pastime in the mid-1940s—he tended to resort to dictionary definitions showing that Ireland had all the attributes of a republic.
^Girvin, Brian (2007).The Emergency: Neutral Ireland 1939–45. Pan.ISBN9780330493291.
^Whyte, J. H. (2010)."Economic crisis and political cold war, 1949-57". In Hill, J. R. (ed.).A New History of Ireland. Vol. VII: Ireland,1921–84. Oxford University Press. p. 277 (footnote 20).ISBN978-0191615597.Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved6 August 2019.The Republic of Ireland Act, 1948...repealed the external relations act, and provided for the declaration of a republic, which came into force on 18 Apr. 1949, when Ireland left the commonwealth.
^O'Toole, Francis; Warrington."Taxations And savings in Ireland"(PDF).Trinity Economic Papers Series. Trinity College Dublin. p. 19.Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 June 2008. Retrieved17 June 2008.
^"Forestry – Did you know?".coillte.ie. Coillte.Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved3 December 2019.Ireland has an ideal climate for forestry with one of the fastest growth rates of trees in Europe
^"Constitution of Ireland – The Courts – Article 34.1".irishstatutebook.ie. Attorney General.Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved28 July 2020.Justice shall be administered in courts [...] and, save in such special and limited cases as may be prescribed by law, shall be administered in public
^See Michael J. Geary,An Inconvenient Wait: Ireland's Quest for Membership of the EEC, 1957–73 (Institute of Public Administration, 2009) (ISBN978-1-904541-83-7)
^United States. National Archives and Records Administration, United States. Office of the Federal Register (1996).Weekly compilation of Presidential documents, Volume 32, Issue 2. Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration. p. 1050.Archived from the original on 5 July 2021. Retrieved29 August 2012.
^"Defence Forces".citizensinformation.ie. Citizens Information Board.Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved28 July 2020.
^"Renewable Energy in Ireland 2011"(PDF),Energy Policy Statistical Support Unit, 2012 Report, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, p. 3, June 2012, archived fromthe original(PDF) on 15 November 2013, retrieved5 August 2013
^"Eoin Colfer signs Artemis Fowl spin-off series deal".The Irish Times. 11 April 2018.Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved5 September 2018.Colfer is The New York Times best-selling author of eight books in the Artemis Fowl series, with sales in excess of 25 million copies
^SenatorDavid Norris successfully challenged the law in theEuropean Court of Human Rights in 1988, but Irish Government did not introduce and pass legislation to rectify the issue until 1993.
J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed),Gill & Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland (Gill & Macmillan, 1995) (ISBN0-7171-2276-X)
Geary, Michael J. (2009).An Inconvenient Wait: Ireland's Quest for Membership of the EEC, 1957–73. Institute of Public Administration.ISBN978-1-904541-83-7.
† 1922 marks the secession of the majority of Ireland from the United Kingdom rather than the creation of a new state. Official name was changed in 1927.
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
