^ Although the Colombian Constitution specifies Spanish (Castellano) as theofficial language in all Colombian territory, other languages spoken in the country by ethnic groups – approximately 68 languages – each is also official in its territory.[10] English is also official in thearchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.[11]
^ The official Colombian time[12] is controlled and coordinated by the National Institute of Metrology.[13]
Colombia has been home to manyindigenous peoples and cultures since at least 12,000 BCE. The Spanish first landed inLa Guajira in 1499, and by the mid-16th century, they had colonized much of present-day Colombia, and established theNew Kingdom of Granada, withSanta Fe de Bogotá as its capital.Independence from theSpanish Empire is considered to have been declared in 1810, with what is now Colombia emerging as theUnited Provinces of New Granada. After a briefSpanish reconquest, Colombian independence was secured and the period ofGran Colombia began in 1819. The new polity experimented with federalism as theGranadine Confederation (1858) and then theUnited States of Colombia (1863), before becoming a centralised republic—the current Republic of Colombia—in1886. With the backing of the United States and France,Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, resulting in Colombia's present borders. Beginning in the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensityarmed conflict and political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s. Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law, as well as unprecedented economic growth and development.[25][26] Colombia is recognized for itshealthcare system, being the best healthcare inLatin America according to theWorld Health Organization and 22nd in the world.[27][28] Itsdiversified economy is the third-largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects.[29][30]
The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigatorChristopher Columbus (Latin:Christophorus Columbus,Italian:Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish:Cristóbal Colón). It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World.[34] The name was later adopted by theRepublic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the oldViceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).[35]
Location map of the pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia
Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization fromMesoamerica and theCaribbean to theAndes andAmazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from thePubenza andEl Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 kilometers (62 mi) southwest of Bogotá.[37] These sites date from thePaleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). AtPuerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from theArchaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions ofEl Abra andTequendama inCundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found inSan Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.[38]
Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadichunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra,Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-dayBogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from theMagdalena River Valley.[39] A site including eight miles (13 km) ofpictographs that is under study at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020.[40] Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.) by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted. It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area.
Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups ofAmerindians including theMuisca,Zenú,Quimbaya, andTairona developed the political system ofcacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed bycaciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now theDepartments ofBoyacá andCundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed theMuisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold,emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especiallyrock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range ofSierra Nevada de Santa Marta.[41] The Quimbaya inhabited regions of theCauca River Valley between theWestern andCentral Ranges of the Colombian Andes.[42] Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes.[43] During the 1200s,Malayo-Polynesians andNative Americans in Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands.[44][45]
Theconquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities.Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire.[59] Indigenous peoples in Colombia experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such assmallpox, to which they had no immunity.[60][61] Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines.[62][63][64] In the 16th century, thenautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of theCasa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of theIberian expansion.[65] In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of theViceroyalty of Peru, with its capital inLima.[66] In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota.[67] In 1549, theRoyal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by theRoyal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena.[68] But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by theCouncil of the Indies.[69][70]
In the 16th century, European slave traders had begun to bringenslaved Africans to the Americas. Spain was the only European power that did not establishfactories in Africa to purchase slaves; the Spanish Empire instead relied on theasiento system, awarding merchants from other European nations the license to trade enslaved peoples to their overseas territories.[72][73] This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution.[e][f] The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legallysubjects of the Spanish Crown.[78] To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities:resguardos,encomiendas andhaciendas.[62][63][64]
However, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between theViceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and theViceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up inCórdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly.[79]
TheViceroyalty of New Granada was established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of theViceroyalties of New Spain orPeru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along withLima andMexico City, though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.[80][81]
Great Britain declared waron Spain in 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British. A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture the city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw. The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until theSeven Years' War.[71][82] The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematicianJosé Celestino Mutis was delegated by ViceroyAntonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as theRoyal Botanical Expedition to New Granada. It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá.[83] In July 1801 the Prussian scientistAlexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomerFrancisco José de Caldas, the scientistFrancisco Antonio Zea, the zoologistJorge Tadeo Lozano and the painterSalvador Rizo.[84][85]
Independence
Theaccessibility of this section is in question. Relevant discussion may be found on thetalk page.(November 2024)
Rebellions against Spanish rule had occurred in the empire since the advent of conquest and colonization, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day.[86] This movement followed the independence ofSaint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion:Simón Bolívar.Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.[87][88][89]
A movement was initiated byAntonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against theViceroyalty.[90]Cartagena became independent in November 1811.[91] In 1811, theUnited Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed byCamilo Torres Tenorio.[92][93] The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism andcentralism) gave rise to a period of instability called thePatria Boba.[94] Shortly after theNapoleonic Wars ended,Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decidedto send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command ofJuan de Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of thejuntas.[95] The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-bornSimón Bolívar, who finally proclaimedindependence in 1819.[96][97] Thepro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.[98][99][100] During the Independence War, between 250 and 400 thousand people (12–20% of the pre-war population) died.[101][102][103]
The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially thePanama Canal construction and control)[117] led to thesecession of the Department of Panama in 1903 and its political independence.[118] The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of PresidentRoosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of theThomson–Urrutia Treaty.[119] Colombia and Peru went towar because of territory disputes far in theAmazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by theLeague of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.[120]
Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known asLa Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidateJorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948.[121][122] The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known asEl Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.[123]
Colombia entered theKorean War whenLaureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops atOld Baldy.[124]
The Axis of Peace and Memory, a memorial to the victims of theColombian conflict (1964–present)
After Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create theNational Front, a coalition that would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.[127] The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with theAlliance for Progress.[128][129] Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as theFARC, theELN and theM-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.[130]
The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s theU.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism.Mercenaries and multinational corporations such asChiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.[131][25][137]
On 4 July 1991, a newConstitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.[139][140]
The administration of PresidentÁlvaro Uribe (2002–2010) adopted thedemocratic security policy which included an integratedcounter-terrorism andcounter-insurgency campaign.[141] The government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors.[142] As part of a controversial peace process, theAUC (right-wing paramilitaries) had ceased to function formally as an organization .[143] In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.[144]
After peace negotiations inCuba, theColombian government of PresidentJuan Manuel Santos and theguerrillas of the FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict.[145] However, areferendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.[146][147] Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revisedpeace deal in November 2016,[148] which theColombian congress approved.[149] In 2016, President Santos was awarded theNobel Peace Prize.[150] The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.[151][152] Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed byHRW.[153] ASpecial Jurisdiction of Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches ofinternational humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right tojustice.[154] During his visit to Colombia,Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.[155]
In June 2018,Iván Duque, the candidate of the right-wingDemocratic Center party, won the presidentialelection.[156] On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the newPresident of Colombia to succeed Juan Manuel Santos.[157]Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to ideological differences between the two governments.[158] Colombia has offeredhumanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela.[159] Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolveVenezuela's crisis should be peaceful.[160] Colombia proposed the idea of theSustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations.[161] In February 2019, Venezuelan presidentNicolás Maduro cut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque had helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leaderJuan Guaidó as the country's legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.[162]
Protests started on 28 April 2021 when the government proposed a tax bill that would greatly expand the range of the 19 percentvalue-added tax.[163] The 19 June 2022election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla,Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% for independent candidateRodolfo Hernández. The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented President Iván Duque from seeking re-election. On 7 August 2022, Petro was sworn in, becoming the country's first leftist president.[164][165]
Colombia is bordered to the northwest byPanama, to the east byVenezuela and Brazil, and to the south byEcuador andPeru;[168] it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean.[167] It lies between latitudes12°N and4°S and between longitudes67° and79°W.
Part of theRing of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes andvolcanic eruptions,[171] in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond theColombian Massif (in the southwestern departments ofCauca andNariño), these are divided into three branches known ascordilleras (mountain ranges): theCordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city ofCali; theCordillera Central, running between theCauca andMagdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities ofMedellín,Manizales,Pereira, andArmenia; and theCordillera Oriental, extending northeast to theGuajira Peninsula and including Bogotá,Bucaramanga, andCúcuta.[166][169][170] Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). At 2,600 m (8,530 ft), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.[166]
The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca,Guaviare,Atrato,Meta,Putumayo andCaquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco andAmazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.[172]
The climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations withinsix natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature,humidity, winds and rainfall.[173] Colombia has a diverse range of climate zones, includingtropical rainforests,savannas,steppes,deserts and mountain climates.
Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in elevation is thewarm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above 24 °C (75.2 °F). About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. Thetemperate climate altitudinal zone located between 1,001 and 2,000 meters (3,284 and 6,562 ft) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between 17 and 24 °C (62.6 and 75.2 °F). Thecold climate is present between 2,001 and 3,000 meters (6,565 and 9,843 ft) and the temperatures vary between 12 and 17 °C (53.6 and 62.6 °F). Beyond lies the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of thepáramos. Above 4,000 meters (13,123 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, the climate isglacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.[173]
Colombia is one of themegadiverse countries inbiodiversity,[174] ranking first inbird species.[175] Colombia is the country with the planet's highest biodiversity, having the highest rate of species by area as well as the largest number ofendemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined. Colombia has 10% of the world'smammals species, 14% of theamphibian species and 18% of thebird species of the world.[176]
As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plantspecies, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size.[178] Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.[31]
Colombia has about 2,000 species ofmarine fish and is the second most diverse country infreshwater fish. It is also the country with the most endemic species ofbutterflies, is first inorchid species, and has approximately 7,000 species ofbeetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country inreptiles andpalms. There are about 1,900 species ofmollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species ofinvertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrialbiomes and 314 types ofecosystems.[179][180]
Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about 14,268,224 hectares (142,682.24 km2) and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory.[181] Compared to neighboring countries, rates ofdeforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.[182] Colombia had a 2018Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries.[183] Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.[184]
The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of apresidentialparticipatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991.[140] In accordance with the principle ofseparation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.[185]
As the head of the executive branch, thePresident of Colombia serves as bothhead of state andhead of government, followed by theVice President and theCouncil of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve a single four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit).[186] At the provincial level executive power is vested indepartment governors,municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such ascorregimientos orcomunas.[187] All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.[188][189]
The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by theCongress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seatChamber of Representatives and a 102-seatSenate.[190][191] The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts.[192] Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.[193]
Despite a number of controversies, thedemocratic security policy has ensured that former PresidentÁlvaro Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009.[197] However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010.[198] In the run-offelections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of DefenseJuan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate,Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes.[199] Santos won re-election with nearly 51% of the vote in second-roundelections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rivalÓscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%.[200] In 2018,Iván Duque won in the second round of theelection with 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival,Gustavo Petro. His term as Colombia's president ran for four years, beginning on 7 August 2018.[201] In 2022, Colombiaelected Gustavo Petro, who became its first leftist leader,[202] andFrancia Marquez, who was the first black person elected as vice president.[203]
The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by theMinister of Foreign Affairs.[204] Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.[205]
The executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the Presidentcommander-in-chief of the armed forces. TheMinistry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and theColombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel.[213] In 2016, 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.[214][215] In 2018, Colombia signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[216]
The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades, and special units,[218] the Colombian Navy by theNaval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation, and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia[219] and the Aerospace Force by 15 air units.[220]
Colombia is divided into 32departments and onecapital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of thedepartment of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided intomunicipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided intocorregimientos in rural areas and intocomunas in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of thecorregimientos orcomunas.[221][222][223][224]
In addition to the capital, four other cities have been designateddistricts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These areBarranquilla,Cartagena,Santa Marta andBuenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example, in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "departmentcorregimientos", which are a hybrid of a municipality and acorregimiento.[221][222]
Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.
Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanized rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.6% of GDP; 20% of the workforce were employed in industry and 65% in services, responsible for 33% and 60% of GDP respectively.[225][226] The country'seconomic production is dominated by its strongdomestic demand.Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.[227][29][228]
Colombia'smarket economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered arecession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since theGreat Depression), and the recovery was long and painful. However, growth reaching 7% in 2007, one of thehighest in Latin America.[26] According toInternational Monetary Fund estimates, in 2023, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$1 trillion,32nd in the world and third in South America, after Brazil and Argentina.
Totalgovernment expenditures account for 28% of the domestic economy.External debt equals 40% of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost inbond ratings.[229][230][231] Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016).[232] The average nationalunemployment rate in 2017 was 9.4%,[233] although the informality is the biggest problem facing thelabour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%).[234] Colombia hasfree-trade zones (FTZ),[235] such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in theValle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.[236]
Thefinancial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy.[30][237][238] TheColombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities.[239][240] Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to theWorld Bank.[241]
Colombia is rich in natural resources, and it is heavily dependent on energy and mining exports.[242] Colombia's main exports include mineral fuels, oils,distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery,food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products,chemical goods,pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipment, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others.[243] Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.[244][245]
Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new freetrade agreements.[246] Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion.[247][248]
In 2017, however, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% were in "extreme poverty". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population.[249] The Government has also been developing a process offinancial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population.[250]
The contribution oftourism to GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016.[251] Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017.[252][253]
Cerrejón is anopen-pit coal mine, the largest of its type, the largest in Latin America and the tenth biggest in the world.
In agriculture, Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world ofcoffee,avocado andpalm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world ofsugarcane,banana,pineapple andcocoa. The country also has considerable production ofrice,potato andcassava. Although it is not the largest coffee producer in the world (Brazil claims that title), the country has been able to carry out, for decades, a global marketing campaign to add value to the country's product. Colombian palm oil production is one of the most sustainable on the planet, compared to the largest existing producers. Colombia is also among the 20 largest producers in the world ofbeef andchicken meat.[254][255][256] Colombia is also the 2nd largestflower exporter in the world, after the Netherlands.[257] Colombian agriculture emits 55% of Colombia'sgreenhouse gas emissions, mostly from deforestation, over-extensive cattle ranching, land grabbing, and illegal agriculture.[258]
Colombia is an important exporter ofcoal andpetroleum – in 2020, more than 40% of the country's exports were based on these two products.[259] In 2018 it was the 5th largest coal exporter in the world.[260] In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels/day, exporting a good part of its production – the country was the 19th largest oil exporter in the world in 2020.[261] In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer ofemerald,[262] and in the production ofgold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, beating the record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. Currently, the country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.[263]
The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly fromRenewable energy sources. 69.93% is obtained from thehydroelectric generation.[264] Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.[265]
In 2021, Colombia had 204,389 km (127,001 mi) of roads, 32,280 km (20,058 mi) of which were paved. At the end of 2017, the country had around 2,100 km (1,305 mi) ofduplicated highways.[272][273][274]Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely tofreight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails.[274] Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers ofoil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.[274]
The Colombian government aimed to build 7,000 km of roads between 2016 and 2020, which would reduce travel times by an estimated 30 per cent, and transport costs by an estimated 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50 bn in transport infrastructure, including railway systems, making theMagdalena River navigable again, improving port facilities, and an expansion ofEl Dorado International Airport.[275][needs update] Colombia is a middle-income country.[276]
Colciencias is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.
Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology.[277] iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions provide. Colombia was ranked 61st in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024.[278] Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small.[279][280] Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia.[281] TheInternational Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge ofglobal warming andfood security.[282]
Important inventions related to medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the firstexternal artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electrical engineerJorge Reynolds Pombo, an invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were themicrokeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known asLASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction ofrefractive errors of vision) and theHakim valve for the treatment ofhydrocephalus.[283] Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware,military robots,bombs, simulators and radar.[284][285]
With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is thethird-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.[290] At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million.[291] Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%.[292] About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially.[293] Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050.[294]
Estimates for the population of the area that is now Colombia range between 2.5 and 12 million people in 1500; estimates between the extremes include figures of 6[54] and 7 million. With the Spanish conquest, the region's population had collapsed to around 1.2 million people in 1600, for an estimated decrease of 52–90%. By the end of the colonial period, it had declined further to around 800,000; it began rising in the early 19th century to around 1.4 million, where it would drop again in theColombian War of Independence to between 1 and 1.2 million. The country's population did not recover to pre-conquest levels until the 1940s, nearly 450 years after its 16th-century peak.[295]
The population is concentrated in theAndean highlands and along theCaribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population.[169][170] Traditionally a rural society,movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%.[296][297] The population ofBogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today.[298] In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). As of 2012[update] Colombia has the world's largest populations ofinternally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.[299]
The life expectancy was 74.8 years in 2015, and infant mortality was 13.1 per thousand in 2016.[300][301] In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP on education.[302]
Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in theEthnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today – most of which belong to theChibchan,Tucanoan,Bora–Witoto,Guajiboan,Arawakan,Cariban,Barbacoan, andSaliban language families. There are currently more than 850,000 speakers of native languages.[306][307]
Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the originalNative inhabitants, Spanish conquistadors,Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-centuryimmigrants from Europe and theMiddle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage.[308] The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history.[309] Whites live all throughout the country, mainly in urban centers and the burgeoning highland and coastal cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos.Mestizocampesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindianchiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.[310][2] In a study by the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Colombians have an average ancestry of 47% Amerindian DNA, 42% European DNA, and 11% African DNA.[311]
The2018 census reported that the "non-ethnic population", consisting ofwhites and mestizos (those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 87.6% of the national population. 6.7% is ofAfrican ancestry.Indigenous Amerindians constitute 4.3% of the population.Raizal people constitute 0.06% of the population.Palenquero people constitute 0.02% of the population. 0.01% of the population areRoma. A study by Latinobarómetro in 2023 estimates that 50.3% of the population areMestizo, 26.4% areWhite, 9.5% areIndigenous, 9.0% areBlack, 4.4% areMulatto, and 0.4% areAsian, these estimates would equate to around 26 million people being Mestizo, 14 million being White, 5 million being Indigenous, 5 million being Black, 2 million being Mulatto, and 200k being Asian.[312]
Ethnic groups of Colombia according to Latinobarómetro 2023[312]
TheFederal Research Division estimated that the 86% of the population that did not consider themselves part of one of the ethnic groups indicated by the 2006 census, white Colombians are mainly ofSpanish lineage, but there is also a large population ofMiddle East descent; in some areas there is a considerable input ofGerman andItalian ancestry.[313][2]
Many of theIndigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule[314] and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy 30,571,640 hectares (305,716.4 km2) (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people.[315] Some of the largest indigenous groups are theWayuu,[316] thePaez, the Pastos, theEmberá and theZenú.[317] The departments ofLa Guajira,Cauca,Nariño,Córdoba andSucre have the largest indigenous populations.[2]
Sub-Saharan Africans were brought asslaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Pacific Coast.[319] NumerousJamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the formerUSSR during and after theSecond World War.[320][321]
Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from theMiddle East andEurope. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations ofLebanese,Palestinian, and otherLevantines.[322][323] There are also important communities ofRomanis andJews.[308] There is a major migration trend ofVenezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.[324] In August 2019, Colombia offered citizenship to more than 24,000 children of Venezuelan refugees who were born in Colombia.[325]
TheNational Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) areRoman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere toProtestantism (primarilyEvangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population isatheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere toJehovah's Witnesses andAdventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as theBaháʼí Faith,Islam, Judaism,Buddhism,Mormonism,Hinduism,Indigenous religions,Hare Krishna movement,Rastafari movement,Eastern Orthodox Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.[326][327][328] 1,519,562 people in Colombia, or around 3% of the population reported following an Indigenous religion.
While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country bybaptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.[329]
Colombia leads the annualAmérica Economía ranking of the best clinics and hospitals in Latin America.[330]
The overalllife expectancy in Colombia at birth is 79.3 years (76.7 years for males and 81.9 years for females).[300] Healthcare reforms have led to massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country, with health standards in Colombia improving very much since the 1980s. The new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012.[331] In 2017, the government declared acancer research and treatment center as a Project of National Strategic Interest.[332]
A 2016 study conducted byAmérica Economía magazine ranked 21 Colombianhealth care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total.[330] In 2022, 26 Colombian hospitals were among the 61 best inLatin America (42% total).[333] Also in 2023, two Colombian hospitals were among the top 75 of the world.[334][335]
The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at apreschool academy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law.[336] It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.[337]
After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, ahigh-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as abachiller, because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit calledbachillerato (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take theICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) to gain access to higher education (Educación superior). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by theSENA after a two years curriculum.[338]
Bachilleres (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.[337]
Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. Theprimary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively.School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.[302]
Elements of all the armed groups have been involved indrug trafficking. In a country where state capacity has been weak in some regions, the result has been a grinding war on multiple fronts, with thecivilian population caught in between and often deliberately targeted for "collaborating". Human rights advocates blame paramilitaries for massacres, "disappearances", and cases oftorture andforced displacement. Rebel groups are behind assassinations, kidnapping and extortion.[342]
In 2011,PresidentJuan Manuel Santos launched the "Borders for Prosperity" plan[343] to fight poverty and combat violence from illegal armed groups along Colombia's borders through social and economic development.[344] The plan received praise from theInternational Crisis Group.[345] Colombia registered ahomicide rate of 24.4 per 100,000 in 2016, the lowest since 1974. The 40-year low in murders came the same year thegovernment signed apeace agreement with the FARC.[346] The murder rate further decreased to 22.6 in 2020, though still among the highest in the world, it decreased 73% from 84 in 1991. In the 1980s and 1990s it regularly ranked as number one.
Since the beginning of thecrisis in Venezuela and the massemigration ofVenezuelans during theVenezuelan refugee crisis, desperate Venezuelans have been recruited intogangs in order to survive by other Venezuelan gang members.[347] Venezuelan women have also resorted toprostitution in order to make a living in Colombia.[347] Also, many Venezuelan prisoners were released from Venezuelan prisons by Maduro. Gang groups from Venezuela have also migrated to Colombia and other countries.
Urbanization
Colombia is a highly urbanized country with 77.1% of the population living in urban areas. The largest cities in the country areBogotá, with 7,387,400 inhabitants,Medellín, with 2,382,399 inhabitants,Cali, with 2,172,527 inhabitants, andBarranquilla, with 1,205,284 inhabitants.[348]
Colombia lies at the crossroads ofLatin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences.Native American,Spanish and otherEuropean,African,American,Caribbean, andMiddle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.[citation needed]
Manynational symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through theMinistry of Culture.[350]
Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.[371][372]
The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted toreligious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools ofsacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plainneoclassicist trend.[384] During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.[372][385]
Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of thedaguerreotype.Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.[386][387]
Throughout the times, there have been a variety ofarchitectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.[391]
TheNational Capitol is a great representative of romanticism.[402] Wood was extensively used in doors, windows, railings, and ceilings during the colonization ofAntioquia. TheCaribbean architecture acquires a strongArabic influence.[403] TheTeatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century.[404] The quintas houses with innovations in thevolumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types ofspaces: parks with forests, smallurban parks andavenues and theGothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.[405]
Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum ofrhythms. It is known as the land of a thousand rhythms, at around 1,024 folk rhythms. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such asShakira,Juanes,Carlos Vives and others.[411] Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with largegaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.[412]
Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such ascumbia (it is played by themaracas, the drums, the gaitas andguacharaca),porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm),mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constantclapping) and the "vallenato", which originated in the northern part of theCaribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, andaccordion).[415][416][417][418][419]
Important musical rhythms of theAndean Region are thedanza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), thebambuco (it is played with guitar,tiple[425] andmandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), thepasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrianwaltz and the Colombian "danza", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (thetiple, thebandola and therequinto are the basic instruments), thesanjuanero (it originated inTolima andHuila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast).[426][427][428][429][430] Apart from these traditional rhythms,salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city ofCali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'.[415][431][432]
The instruments that distinguish the music of theEastern Plains are theharp, thecuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are thejoropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of itsflamenco ancestry) and thegaleron (it is heard a lot whilecowboys are working).[415][433][434][435]
The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument ofceremonial type, consisting of a pair of largecylindrical drums), thequena (melodic instrument), therondador, thecongas,bells, and different types of flutes.[436][437][438]
TheCartagena Film Festival is the oldest cinema event in Latin America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America.[441]
Theater was introduced in Colombia during theSpanish colonization in 1550 throughzarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. TheIbero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world.[442] Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion" (Bogotá).[443][444][445]
Although theColombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003.[446] Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are theCartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and theBogotá Film Festival.[441][447][448]
Some important national circulation newspapers areEl Tiempo andEl Espectador.Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels,RCN andCaracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.[449][450][451]
Bandeja paisa (top) and Ajiaco (bottom) are two of the most traditional plates in the country.
Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato andcassava; assortedlegumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood.[453][454] Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such ascape gooseberry,feijoa,arazá,dragon fruit,mangostino,granadilla,papaya,guava, mora (blackberry),lulo,soursop andpassionfruit.[455] Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices.[456]
Tejo is Colombia's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target.[459] But of all sports in Colombia,football is the most popular.Colombia was the champion of the2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year" twice.[460]
Colombia is a hub forroller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships.[461] Colombia has traditionally been very good incycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.[462]
^Balboa is best known for being the first European to see the Pacific Ocean in 1513, which he calledMar del Sur (or "Sea of the South") and would facilitate Spanish exploration and settlement of South America.
^A royal decree of 1713 approved the legality ofPalenque de San Basilio founded by runaway slaves as a refuge in the seventeenth century. The people of San Basilio fought against slavery, thereby giving rise to the first free place in the Americas.[74] Its main leader wasBenkos Biohó, who was born in West Africa.[75]
^Peter Claver was a Spaniard who traveled to Cartagena in 1610 and was ordained as aJesuit priest in 1616. Claver cared for African slaves for thirty-eight years, defending their lives and thedignity.[76][77]
^Héctor Abad was a prominent medical doctor, university professor, and human rights leader whose holistic vision of healthcare led him to found the Colombian National School of Public Health. The increasing violence and human rights abuses of the 1970s and 1980s led him to fight for social justice in his community.[134][135]
^Javier de Nicoló was aSalesian priest who grew up in war-torn Italy and arrived in Colombia a year after the Bogotazo. He developed a program that has offered more than 40,000 young people the education and moral support they needed to become productive citizens.[136]
^Fawcett de Posada, Louise; Posada Carbó, Eduardo (1992)."En la tierra de las oportunidades: los sirio-libaneses en Colombia" [In the land of opportunity: the Syrian-Lebanese in Colombia](PDF).Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico (in Spanish).29 (29). publicaciones.banrepcultural.org:8–11.Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved20 July 2017.
^S.A.S, Editorial La República (26 April 2022)."Colombia y Medio Oriente".Diario La República (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 24 November 2022. Retrieved26 February 2023.
^Faucher, Nicolás Murillo (11 August 2014)."La herencia Africana en Colombia".Libre Pensador (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved26 February 2023.
^Van der Hammen, Thomas; Urrego, Gonzalo Correal (September 1978). "Prehistoric man of the Sabana de Bogotá: Data for an ecological prehistory".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.25 (1–2):179–190.Bibcode:1978PPP....25..179V.doi:10.1016/0031-0182(78)90077-9.
^Broadbent, Sylvia (1965). "Los Chibchas: organización socio-polític".Serie Latinoamericana.5.
^Álvaro Chaves Mendoza; Jorge Morales Gómez (1995).Los indios de Colombia (in Spanish). Vol. 7. Editorial Abya Yala.ISBN978-9978-04-169-7.Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved26 December 2021.
^Proceso de beatificación y canonización de San Pedro Claver. Edición de 1696. Traducción del latín y del italiano, y notas de Anna María Splendiani y Tulio Aristizábal S. J. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Universidad Católica del Táchira. 2002.
^Valtierra, Ángel. 1964. San Pedro Claver, el santo que liberó una raza.
^Silvio Arturo Zavala (1971).Revista de historia de América. Números 69-70. Ciudad de México: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, pp. 303. "Para el primero, de 1400000 habs. que la futura Colombia tendría en 1809 (entre ellos 78000 negros esclavos), (...) mortaldad que él mismo señala a tal guerra (unos 400 000 muertos para la Gran Colombia, entre ellos, 250 000 venezolanos)."
^Charles Bergquist; David J. Robinson (1997–2005)."Colombia".Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2005. Microsoft Corporation. Archived fromthe original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved16 April 2006.On 9 April 1948, Gaitán was assassinated outside his law offices in downtown Bogotá. The assassination marked the start of a decade of bloodshed, calledLa Violencia (The Violence), which took the lives of an estimated 180,000 Colombians before it subsided in 1958.
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title VII – Concerning the executive branch)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title V – Concerning the organization of the state – Chapter 1 – Concerning the structure of the state – Article 114)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Chapter 4 – Concerning the senate – Article 171)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Chapter 5 – Concerning the chamber of representatives – Article 176)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title VI – Concerning the legislative branch – Chapter 1 – Concerning its structure and functions – Article 132)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title VII – Concerning the judiciary branch – Chapter 2 – Concerning ordinary jurisdiction – Article 234)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title VIII – Concerning the judiciary branch)
^Landau, David (2017).Colombian Constitutional Law: Leading Cases. Oxford University Press. p. 217.ISBN9780190640378.The 1991 Constitution moved Colombia away from the inquisitorial criminal system that it has traditionally possessed (and where the judge plays the leading role in the criminal process), and toward an adversarial system more like the American system, where lawyers act for each side as the protagonists.
^Ipsos-Napoleon Franco poll (1 June 2009)."Si no es Uribe, es Santos" (in Spanish). semana.com.Archived from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved15 March 2014.
^abColombian Constitution of 1991 (Title XI – Concerning the territorial organization)
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title XI – Concerning the territorial organization – Chapter 3 – Concerning the municipal regime – Article 318)
^Herrera Llanos, W (2011). "Régimen municipal en Colombia (Continuación del tema sobre Organización Territorial)".Revista de Derecho. Universidad del Norte: 27.
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 January 2024. Retrieved8 February 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Rojas, Winston; Parra, María Victoria; Campo, Omer; Caro, María Antonieta; Lopera, Juan Guillermo; Arias, William; Duque, Constanza; Naranjo, Andrés; García, Jharley; Vergara, Candelaria; Lopera, Jaime; Hernandez, Erick; Valencia, Ana; Caicedo, Yuri; Cuartas, Mauricio; Gutiérrez, Javier; López, Sergio; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Bedoya, Gabriel (September 2010)."Genetic make up and structure of Colombian populations by means of uniparental and biparental DNA markers".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.143 (1):13–20.doi:10.1002/ajpa.21270.PMID20734436. Retrieved13 February 2024.
^Colombian Constitution of 1991 (Title II – Concerning rights, guarantees, and duties – Chapter 2 – Concerning social, economic and cultural rights – Article 67)
^Singh, Gitanjali M., et al. "Global, regional, and national consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, fruit juices, and milk: a systematic assessment of beverage intake in 187 countries." PLoS ONE 10.8 (2015): e0124845.
.svg)
_-_An%25C3%25B3nimo.jpg)
.svg)
_-_Carta_XI_-_Divisi%25C3%25B3n_pol%25C3%25ADtica_de_Colombia%2c_1824.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.jpeg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
