Anthem:Ազատ ու Անկախ Արցախ Azat u Ankakh Artsakh "Free and Independent Artsakh"
Territory controlled by Artsakh 1994–2020 shown in dark green; territory claimed but not controlled shown in light green
Territory controlled by Artsakh 2020–2023 shown in dark green; territory claimed but not controlled shown in light green;Lachin corridor shown in white
The local Armenians of the area, motivated by fears of cultural and physical erasure undergovernment policies from Azerbaijan, began the1988 Karabakh movement advocating for reunification (Miatsum) with Armenia.[10][11][verification needed] This was met withextreme violence from Azerbaijani authorities and civilians, escalating tensions and culminating in areferendum in 1991 which overwhelmingly opted for independence. The conflict erupted into afull-out war in 1992.[8] The war was won by Artsakh with support from Armenia. Although aceasefire agreement was signed in 1994, thefrozen situation left the predominantly Armenian-populated territoryde facto independent, with a self-proclaimed government in Stepanakert, but still heavily reliant on and closely integrated with Armenia, in many ways functioning as ade facto part of Armenia.[12][13] Even though Armenia never officially recognized the region's independence, it became the main financial and military supporter of the territory.[14][15] In 2017, a referendum in the area approved a new constitution that transformed the system of government from asemi-presidential to apresidentialdemocracy with aunicamerallegislature in addition to changing the name of the state from the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh to the Republic of Artsakh, although both names remained official.
From 1994 until 2020, Armenian and Azerbaijani troops remained separated by acontested line of contact[16] which sawsporadic deadly incidents during the intervening years.[17] In 2020, anew war was fought in the region,[8] with Azerbaijan achieving victory and regaining all thesurrounding occupied districts and a significant portion of Artsakh's claimed territory.[12][15][17] The Lachin corridor linking Artsakh to Armenia wasblockaded by Azerbaijan in December 2022. In September 2023,Azerbaijan launched another military offensive. The government of Artsakh agreed to disarm and enter talks with Azerbaijan, prompting aflight of ethnic Armenians from the area. On 28 September 2023, the president of Artsakh signed a decree to dissolve all of the republic's institutions by 1 January 2024,[18] though the president later attempted to annul this decree.[19] By 1 October 2023, almost the entire population of the region had fled to Armenia,[20] marking the end of a millennia-old Armenian presence in Nagorno-Karabakh.[21][22][23][24]
The town ofChartar in 2010General view of the capitalStepanakert in 2015
According to scholars, inscriptions dating to theUrartian period mention the region under a variety of names: "Ardakh", "Urdekhe", and "Atakhuni".[25][26][27] In hisGeography, the classical historianStrabo refers to an Armenian region which he calls "Orchistene", which is believed by some to be aGreek version of the old name of Artsakh.[28][29][30]
Folk etymology holds that the name is derived from "Ar" (Aran) and "tsakh" (woods, garden) (i.e., the gardens of Aran Sisakean, the firstnakharar of northeastern Armenia).[32]
The name "Nagorno-Karabakh", commonly used in English, comes from the Russian name which means "Mountainous Karabakh". Karabakh is a Turkish/Persian word thought to mean "black garden". The Azerbaijani name for the area, "Dağlıq Qarabağ", has the same meaning as the Russian name. The term "Artsakh" lacks the non-Armenian influences present in "Nagorno-Karabakh". Artsakh was revived for use in the 19th century, and was the preferred term used by the population, in English and Russian as well as Armenian.[33] "Mountainous Karabakh" was sometimes employed directly as part of the official English name, "Republic of Mountainous Karabakh". This reflected an attempt to shift away from the negative associations thought linked with "Nagorno-Karabakh" due to the war.[34]
Map of Artsakh and surrounding territories. The area surrounded by red borders corresponds to territory de facto controlled by the Republic of Artsakh from 1994 until 2020. Yellow regions correspond to the Soviet-era Nagorno Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), with yellow striped regions controlled by Azerbaijan but claimed by the Republic of Artsakh. Green striped regions correspond to territories outside the former NKAO held by Artsakh until the end of theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War.
In the lead-up to thedissolution of the Soviet Union, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict was revitalised. In 1987–88, amass movement started in Nagorno-Karabakh and Soviet Armenia calling on the Soviet authorities to transfer the region to Armenia, citing self-determination laws in the Soviet constitution.[35] Starting with thepogrom against Armenians in the Azerbaijani town ofSumgait in February 1988, the conflict became increasingly violent, and attempts by Moscow to resolve the dispute failed. In summer 1988, the legislatures of Soviet Armenia and the NKAO passed resolutions declaring the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh with Armenia, which were rejected by Azerbaijani and central Soviet authorities.[36]
Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union on August 30, 1991, and Azerbaijan formally achieved its sovereignty following a referendum on September 21, 1991. Later, on November 27, 1991, the parliament revoked the autonomous status of the Nagorno-Karabakh region, prompting local leaders to call for a referendum on independence from Azerbaijan on December 10, 1991.[16] The result saw approximately 99 percent of ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region vote for separation.Artur Mkrtchyan was chosen as president of the Nagorno-Karabakh region following parliamentary elections on December 28, 1991. On January 2, 1992, PresidentAyaz Mutallibov of Azerbaijan placed the Nagorno-Karabakh region under direct presidential control, and Nagorno-Karabakh formally declared its independence from Azerbaijan on January 6, 1992.[16]
The Republic of Artsakh became a de facto independent country, though closely integrated with Armenia, while its territory remained internationally recognised as part of the Republic of Azerbaijan. Professor Matt Qvortrup considered it hypocritical that Western Europe countries had eagerly recognised the succession of several states fromYugoslavia, ignoring the laws of territorial integrity, but simultaneously did not show the same interest for the Nagorno-Karabakh referendum, noting "the practice of independence referendums seemingly owes more to national interest than to adherence to principles ofjurisprudence".[39]
Intermittent fighting over the region continued after the 1994 ceasefire without significant territorial changes,[40] while long-standing international mediation attempts to create a peace process were initiated by theOSCE Minsk Group in 1994.[41][42][43]
Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (2020), Azerbaijan gains
On 27 September 2020, awar broke out between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Artsakh.[44][45] Fighting continued until November, and Azerbaijan recaptured territories, primarily in the southern part of the region, as well as the strategic town ofShushi. Aceasefire agreement signed on 10 November 2020 between Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia declared an end to the renewed fighting, and established that Armenia would withdraw from remaining occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh over the next month. The agreement included provisions for aRussian peacekeeping force to deploy to the region, with Russian President Vladimir Putin stating that the ceasefire agreement would "create the conditions for a long-term settlement".[46][47] The war may have claimed thousands of lives.[48]
Aftermath of 2020 war
After the 2020 war, the Republic of Artsakh maintained control over the areas of the former oblast that had not been captured during the war.[46]
In 2021, Russia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia held a trilateral meeting about Artsakh. This was expected to be the first of a regular series of meetings between the three countries, per an agreement to promote economic and infrastructure development throughout the region.[49]
In December 2022, Azerbaijanis claiming to be environmental activists blocked the Lachin corridor, the sole road connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia and the outside world.[50] On 23 April 2023, Azerbaijani forces installed a checkpoint on the Lachin corridor.[51] The blockade led to a humanitarian crisis for the population in Artsakh; imports of essential goods were blocked, as well as humanitarian convoys of the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers, trapping the 120,000 residents of the region.[52][53][54][55][56] Limited traffic was conducted by Russian peacekeepers and theInternational Committee of the Red Cross to transport patients in need of medical care and provide humanitarian supplies.[57][58] However, from 15 June 2023, Azerbaijan intensified the blockade, blocking all passage of food, fuel, and medicine from the Red Cross and the Russian peacekeepers through the Lachin corridor.[59][60][61]
2023 Azerbaijani offensive, exodus, and dissolution
Russian peacekeepers help evacuate Armenian refugees fromStepanakert.[62]
On 19 September, Azerbaijanlaunched a military offensive into Artsakh-controlled territory. The following day, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agreed to disarm and a ceasefire took effect. Initial negotiations between representatives of the Karabakh Armenian community and the Government of Azerbaijan took place on 21 September inYevlakh to discuss security, rights and "integration".[63] The talks, which lasted two hours, ended without a formal agreement; however, a statement by Azerbaijani Presidency said that they were "constructive and positive" and that further negotiations would continue.[64] On 24 September,a mass evacuation of ethnic-Armenian civilians started, fearing persecution andethnic cleansing if they remained.[63][65] A second round of negotiations between representatives of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians and Azerbaijan took place inKhojaly on 25 September, where humanitarian issues were discussed.[66][67] A third meeting between took place inYevlakh on 29 September.[68]
On 28 September, Artsakh presidentSamvel Shahramanyan signed a decree stating that all state institutions would be dissolved by 1 January 2024, bringing the existence of the republic to an end.[69] Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev visited the region on 15 October and officially raised the flag of Azerbaijan at the building that was previously used as the Artsakh Presidential Palace.[70] On 22 December 2023, Shahramanyan said that there was no official document stipulating the dissolution of government institutions, and his office stated that it was "empty paper".[71]
Geography
Topographic map of Artsakh in the borders 1994−2020
The Artsakh Republic was mountainous, a feature which has given it its former name (from the Russian for "Mountainous/Highland Karabakh"). It is 3,170 km2 (1,224 sq mi) in area.[4] The largest water body is theSarsang Reservoir, and the major rivers are theTartar andKhachen rivers.[72] The country is on a plateau which slopes downwards towards the east and southeast, with the average altitude being 1,100 m (3,600 ft)above sea level.[73] Most rivers in the country flow towards theArtsakh Valley.[73]
The geology of Artsakh is primarily part of the Kussary-Divichi Foredeep – the northernforedeep of theGreater Caucasus. The trough is filled withOligocene toQuaternary age deepwater,molasse and marine sedimentary rocks.[74]
The climate is mild and temperate. The average temperature is 11 °C (52 °F), which fluctuates annually between 22 °C (72 °F) in July and −1 °C (30 °F) in January. The average precipitation can reach 710 mm (28 in) in some regions, and it is foggy for over 100 days a year.[73] Over 2,000 kinds of plants exist in Artsakh, and more than 36% of the country is forested. The plant life on thesteppes consists mostly of semi-desert vegetation, whilesubalpine zone andalpine tundra ecosystems can be found above the forest in the highlands and mountains.[73]
Artsakh was heavily dependent on Armenia, and in many waysde facto functioned and was administered as part of Armenia. However, Armenia was hesitant to officially recognise Artsakh.[13][83]
The founding documents of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic were theProclamation of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic and theDeclaration of State Independence of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic. For a long time no constitution was created, with the republic instead declaring Armenian law applied on its territory through a 1992 law. Even when new laws were passed, they were often copies of equivalent Armenian laws.[84]
On 3 November 2006, the then-president of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic,Arkadi Ghukasyan, signed a decree to holda referendum on a draft Nagorno-Karabakh constitution.[85] It was held on 10 December of the same year and according to official preliminary results, with a turnout of 87.2%,[citation needed] as many as 98.6 per cent of voters approved the constitution.[86] The first article of the document described the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, alternatively called the Republic of Artsakh, as "a sovereign, democratic state based on social justice and the rule of law."[87][88] More than 100 non-governmental international observers and journalists who monitored the poll evaluated it positively, stating that it was held to a high international standard.[89]
However, the vote was criticised harshly by the European Union,OSCE andGUAM, which rejected the referendum, deeming it illegitimate.[89][90] The EU announced it was "aware that a 'constitutional referendum' has taken place," but emphasised its stance that only a negotiated settlement between Azerbaijan and ethnic Armenians could bring a lasting solution.[91]Secretary General of the Council of EuropeTerry Davis asserted that the poll "will not be recognized... and is therefore of no consequence".[89]In a statement, the OSCE chairman in officeKarel De Gucht voiced his concern that the vote would prove harmful to the ongoing conflict settlement process, which, he said, had shown "visible progress" and was at a "promising juncture".[86]
The holding of the referendum was also criticised by Turkey, which traditionally supports Azerbaijan because of common ethnic Turkic roots, and has historically hadsevere tensions with Armenia.[92][93]
Another referendum was held on 20 February 2017, with an 87.6% vote in favour on a 76% turnout for instituting a new constitution. This constitution among other changes turned the government from a semi-presidential to a fully presidential model. Its name was changed from "Constitution of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic" to "Constitution of the Republic of Artsakh", though both remained official names of the country.[7][94][95] The referendum was seen as a response to the2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes.[96]
Artsakh was divided intoseven provinces and one specialadministrative city. According to its authorities, it consisted of the territories in which the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic wasproclaimed in 1991: the formerNagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO), theShahumyan Region and the Getashen subdistrict; and those territories thatformed part of the Republic of Artsakh before theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War.[97][98][99] Also claimed by Artsakh was theShahumyan Region of the Azerbaijan SSR, which has been under Azerbaijani control since theFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War. While the Shahumyan Region was not part of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast, representatives from Shahumyan declared independence along with the Oblast, and the proclamation of Artsakh includes the Shahumyan region within its borders.[100]
After the end of theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War, anagreement was signed according to which most of the controlled territories of the Republic of Artsakh were transferred to Azerbaijani control, but the Republic of Artsakh continues to claim these territories.[97][98][99]
Following the Republic of Artsakh's declaration of independence, the Azerbaijani government abolished the NKAO and created Azerbaijani districts in its place. As a result, some of Artsakh's divisions corresponded with theAzerbaijani districts, while others had different borders.[101]
Artsakh nominal administrative divisions
A comparative table of the established divisions of Artsakh and the corresponding districts of Azerbaijan follows:
After the annexation of Artsakh to theAzerbaijan SSR, on 4 August 1923, the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs of theNagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast was established. In the years following theFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War, the Republic of Artsakh created its own police force. In 2001, the National Assembly's law "On Police" was adopted on 30 November 2006.[clarification needed] On 11 March 2014,Police Day in Artsakh was declared for 16 April.[104] The police force followed an organization similar to that of thePolice of Armenia.[105]
National Security Service
Artsakh had its own National Security Service, based on theNSS of Armenia.[106] It was a republican body that elaborated and implemented the policies of the government in the national security sector.[107] By decree of the NKR Supreme Council adopted on 18 January 2006, the NKAO State Security Department was named the State Department of National Security under the NKR Council of Ministers. By order of the NKR National Assembly on 26 November 2003, the NKR laws "On National Security Bodies" and "On Service in National Security Bodies" were adopted. The activities of the NSS were based in the decrees of 25 September 2012.[108] The NSS was headed by Lieutenant General Kamo Aghajanyan.[109][110]
It fought the Azerbaijani army to a ceasefire on 12 May 1994.[113] At its peak, the Artsakh Defense Army consisted of around 18,000–20,000 officers and soldiers. However, only around 8,500 citizens from Artsakh served in the army; some 10,000 came from Armenia. There were also 177–316tanks, 256–324 additional fighting vehicles, and 291–322 guns andmortars. Armenia supplied arms and other military necessities to Artsakh. Several battalions of Armenia's army were deployed directly in the Artsakh zone on occupied Azerbaijani territory.[114]
The Artsakh Defense Armyfought in Shusha in 1992, opening theLachin corridor between Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh (1992), and staged the defence of theMartakert front from 1992 to 1994.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Artsakh inStepanakert
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was based inStepanakert. Since no UN member or observer ever recognised Artsakh, none of its foreign relations were of an official diplomatic nature. However, the Republic of Artsakh operated five permanent Missions and one Bureau of Social-Politic Information in France. Artsakh's Permanent Missions existed inArmenia, Australia, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and one for Middle East countries based inBeirut.[115] The goals of the offices were to present the Republic's positions on various issues, to provide information and to facilitate the peace process.[citation needed]
In his 2015 speech, the President of ArmeniaSerzh Sargsyan stated that he considered Nagorno-Karabakh "an inseparable part of Armenia".[116]
The Republic of Artsakh was neither a member nor observer of the UN or any of its specialised agencies. However, it was a member of theCommunity for Democracy and Rights of Nations, commonly known as the "Commonwealth of Unrecognized States".[citation needed]
While no UN member states recognised Artsakh,[117] some unrecognised and partially recognised states had done so, includingTransnistria,Abkhazia andSouth Ossetia.[118] Various sub-national governments, including severalU.S. states, had issued calls for recognition of Artsakh by their national governments.[119]
De facto independent Artsakh (1993–2023): conflicting ideologies and diplomacy
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(October 2023)
Artsakh was ade factoindependent state, calling itself theRepublic of Artsakh.[citation needed] It had close relations withArmenia and used the same currency, thedram. According toHuman Rights Watch, "from the beginning of the Karabakh conflict, Armenia provided aid, weapons, and volunteers. Armenian involvement in Artsakh escalated after a December 1993 Azerbaijani offensive. The Republic of Armenia began sending conscripts and regular Army and Interior Ministry troops to fight in Artsakh."[120] The politics of Armenia and the de facto Artsakh are so intertwined thatRobert Kocharyan served as the first President of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, from 1994 to 1997, then as prime minister of Armenia from 1997 to 1998, and then as the second President of Armenia, from 1998 to 2008.[citation needed]
However, Armenian governments have repeatedly resisted internal pressure to unite the two, due to ongoing negotiations under the auspices of theOSCE Minsk Group. In his case study of Eurasia, Dov Lynch of the Institute for Security Studies ofWEU believes that "Karabakh's independence allows the new Armenian state to avoid the international stigma of aggression, despite the fact that Armenian troops fought in the war between 1991 and 1994 and continue to man the Line of Contact between Karabakh and Azerbaijan." Lynch also cites that the "strength of the Armenian armed forces, and Armenia's strategic alliance with Russia, are seen as key shields protecting the Karabakh state by the authorities inStepanakert".[121] Some sources consider Artsakh as functioningde facto as a part of Armenia.[122][123][124][125][126]
Negotiations, outside mediation (2001–2007)
2001 Paris, Key West talks
Representatives of Armenia, Azerbaijan, France, Russia and the United States met in Paris and inKey West, Florida, in early 2001.[127] Despite rumours that the parties were close to a solution, the Azerbaijani authorities – both duringHeydar Aliyev's period of office, and after the accession of his sonIlham Aliyev in the October 2003 elections – have firmly denied that any agreement was reached in Paris or Key West.
2004 Astana talks
Further talks between the Azerbaijani and Armenian presidents,Ilham Aliyev andRobert Kocharyan, were held in September 2004 in Astana,Kazakhstan, on the sidelines of theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) summit. Reportedly, one of the suggestions put forward was the withdrawal of the occupying forces from the Azeri territories adjacent to Artsakh and then holdingreferendums (plebiscites) in Artsakh and Azerbaijan proper regarding the future status of the region.[128]
2006 Rambouillet talks
On 10 and 11 February 2006, Kocharyan and Aliyev met inRambouillet, France, to discuss the fundamental principles of a settlement to the conflict. Contrary to the initial optimism, the Rambouillet talks did not produce any agreement, with key issues such as the status of Artsakh and whether Armenian troops would withdraw fromKalbajar still being contentious.[128]
2006 Bucharest meeting
Talks were held at the Polish embassy inBucharest in June 2006.[129] Again, American, Russian, and French diplomats attended the talks that lasted over 40 minutes.[130] Earlier, Armenian President Kocharyan announced that he was ready to "continue dialogue with Azerbaijan for the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and with Turkey on establishing relations without any preconditions".[131]
According to the Armenian foreign minister in 2006,Vardan Oskanyan, no progress was made at this latest meeting. Both presidents failed to reach a consensus on the issues from the earlier Rambouillet conference. He noted that the Kocharyan-Aliyev meeting was held in a normal atmosphere. "Nevertheless," he added, "the foreign ministers of the two countries are commissioned to continue talks over the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and try to find common points before the next meeting of the presidents."[132]
The major disagreement between both sides at the Bucharest conference was the status of Artsakh. Azerbaijan's preferred solution would be to give Artsakh the "highest status of autonomy adopted in the world".[133] Armenia, on the other hand, endorsed a popular vote by the inhabitants of Artsakh to decide their future, a position that was also taken by the[which?] international mediators.[134] On 27 June, the Armenian foreign minister said both parties agreed to allow the residents of Artsakh to vote regarding the future status of the region.[135] The Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs officially refuted that statement.[136] According to Azeri opposition leaderIsa Gambar, Azerbaijan did indeed agree to the referendum, but his claim was never substantiated.[137]
2006 Prague Process
The "Prague Process" overseen by the OSCE Minsk Group was brought into sharp relief in the summer of 2006 with a series of rare public revelations seemingly designed to jump-start the stalled negotiations. After the release in June of a paper outlining its position, which had until then been carefully guarded, U.S. State Department officialMatthew Bryza toldRadio Free Europe that the Minsk Group favoured a referendum in Karabakh that would determine its final status. The referendum, in the view of the OSCE, should take place not in Azerbaijan as a whole, but in Artsakh only. This was a blow to Azerbaijan, and despite talk that their government might eventually seek a more sympathetic forum for future negotiations, this did not occur.[138]
2007 Azerbaijan's PKK claim
On 10 December 2007 Azerbaijan's deputy foreign minister said Azerbaijan would be prepared to conduct anti-terrorist operations in Nagorno-Karabakh against alleged bases of theKurdistan Workers' Party (PKK).[139] Armenian Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Vladimir Karapetian previously rejected the allegations as "fabricated" and suggested the accusations of the PKK presence were a form of provocation.[140]
Armenian, Artsakh fundamental positions (c. 2007–10)
Armenia did not recognise Azerbaijani claims to Nagorno-Karabakh and believed the territory should have self-determination.[141] Both the Armenian and Artsakhi governments emphasized that the independence of Artsakh was declared around the time the Soviet Union dissolved and its members became independent.[142][143] The Armenian government insisted that the government of Artsakh be part of any discussions on the region's future, and rejected ceding occupied territory or allowing refugees to return before talks on the region's status.[144]
In 2009, the president of the Nagorno-Karabakh RepublicBako Sahakyan declared that "Artsakh will never be a part of Azerbaijan. Artsakh security should never be an article of commerce either. As to other issues, we are ready to discuss them with Azerbaijan".[145] In 2010 president of Republic of ArmeniaSerzh Sargsyan in his speech in the Chatham House of the British Royal Institute of International Affairs declared that "Karabakh was never a part of independent Azerbaijan: it was annexed to Azerbaijan by a decision of the Soviet Union party body. The people of Karabakh never put up with this decision, and upon the first opportunity, seceded from the Soviet Union fully in line with the laws of the Soviet Union and the applicable international law".[146]
Aliyev: fundamental position on Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh (2008)
In 2008, Azerbaijani presidentIlham Aliyev stated that "Nagorno-Karabakh will never be independent; the position is backed by international mediators as well; Armenia has to accept the reality" and that "in 1918,Yerevan was granted to theArmenians. It was a great mistake. Thekhanate of Iravan wasAzeri territory, the Armenians were guests here".[147]
UN, EU, Minsk Group diplomacy (2008–10)
On 14 March 2008, the United Nations General Assembly passed anon-binding resolution by a vote of 39 to 7, with 100 abstentions, reaffirming Azerbaijan's territorial integrity, expressing support for that country's internationally recognised borders and demanding the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories there. The resolution was supported mainly by members of theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) andGUAM. Azerbaijan is a member of both groups, which include other nations facing breakaway regions. The resolution was opposed by all three members of theOSCE Minsk Group.[148]
On 20 May 2010, theEuropean Parliament adopted a resolution "on the need for anEU strategy for the South Caucasus", which states that the EU must pursue a strategy to promote stability, prosperity and conflict resolution in the South Caucasus.[149][150]: 3, 38 The resolution "calls on the parties to intensify their peace talk efforts for the purpose of a settlement in the coming months, to show a more constructive attitude and to abandon preferences to perpetuate the status quo created by force and with no international legitimacy, creating in this way instability and prolonging the suffering of the war-affected populations; condemns the idea of a military solution and the heavy consequences of military force already used, and calls on both parties to avoid any further breaches of the 1994 ceasefire".[150]: 6 The resolution also calls for the withdrawal of Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan, accompanied by the deployment of international forces to be organised with respect of the UN Charter in order to provide the necessary security guarantees in a period of transition, which will ensure the security of the population of Artsakh and allow the displaced people to return to their homes and further conflicts caused by homelessness to be prevented; and states that the EU believes that the position according to which Artsakh includes all occupied Azerbaijani lands surrounding Artsakh should rapidly be abandoned.[150]: 8, 10 It also notes "that an interim status for Nagorno-Karabakh could offer a solution until the final status is determined and that it could create a transitional framework for peaceful coexistence and cooperation of Armenian and Azerbaijani populations in the region."[150]: 10
On 26 June 2010, the presidents of the OSCE Minsk Group's co-chair countries, France, Russia, and United States made a joint statement, reaffirming their "commitment to support the leaders of Armenia and Azerbaijan as they finalize the Basic Principles for the peaceful settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict".[151]
Armenian position (2019)
During his August 2019 visit to Stepanakert, thePrime Minister of ArmeniaNikol Pashinyan presented the strategic development goals set for Armenia for the next three decades. He added that he made no special provision for Nagorno-Karabakh because "Artsakh is Armenia and there is no alternative".[152] Soon afterwards, Armenia's Foreign MinisterZohrab Mnatsakanyan commented on Pashinyan's statement by saying he had "nothing to add" to Pashinyan's formulation of Armenia's position in the conflict.[153]
Displacement, landmines problem during conflict (1988–2023)
The first Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resulted in the displacement of 597,000 Azerbaijanis (this figure includes 230,000 children born tointernally displaced people (IDPs) and 54,000 who had returned)[154] including Artsakh,[clarification needed] and 220,000 Azeris, 18,000 Kurds and 3,500 Russians fled from Armenia to Azerbaijan from 1988 to 1989. The Azerbaijani government estimated that 63% of IDPs lived below the poverty line, compared to 49% of the total population. About 154,000 lived in the capital, Baku. According to theInternational Organization for Migration, 40,000 IDPs lived in camps, 60,000 in dugout shelters, and 20,000 in railway cars. Forty-thousand IDPs lived in EU-funded settlements and UNHCR provided housing for another 40,000. Another 5,000 IDPs lived in abandoned or rapidly deteriorating schools. Others lived in trains, on roadsides in half-constructed buildings, or in public buildings such as tourist and health facilities. Tens of thousands lived in seven tent camps where poor water supply and sanitation causedgastrointestinal infections,tuberculosis, andmalaria.[155][156]
The government required IDPs to register their place of residence in an attempt to better target the limited and largely inadequate national and international assistance due to the Armenian advocated and US imposed restrictions on humanitarian aid to Azerbaijan. Many IDPs were from rural areas and found it difficult to integrate into the urban labour market. Many international humanitarian agencies reduced or ceased assistance for IDPs citing increasing oil revenues of the country.[157] The infant mortality among displaced Azerbaijani children was 3–4 times higher than in the rest of the population. The rate ofstillbirth was 88.2 per 1,000 births among the internally displaced people. As of 2003, the majority of the displaced had lived in difficult conditions for more than 13 years.[158]
During the2020 warPresident Aliyev stated he intended for refugees to return to the area.[159][160] While many former cities are currently uninhabitable,[161] the Azerbaijani government and some Azerbaijani companies have announced plans to rebuild infrastructure and invest in the newly controlled territories.[162][163] The Azerbaijani military is clearing mines prior to resettlement, which may take 10–13 years.[164]
280,000 people – virtually all ethnic Armenians who fled Azerbaijan during the 1988–1993 war over the disputed region of Artsakh – were living in refugee-like circumstances in Armenia.[165] Some left the country, principally to Russia. Their children born in Armenia acquire citizenship automatically. Their numbers are thus subject to constant decline due to departure, and de-registration required for naturalisation. Of these, about 250,000 fled Azerbaijan (areas outside Nagorno-Karabakh); approximately 30,000 came from Nagorno-Karabakh. All were registered with the government as refugees at year's end.[165]
Mines were laid in the region from 1991 to 1994 by both conflicting parties in thefirst Nagorno-Karabakh War. In 2005, theUnited Nations Development Program (UNDP) claimed that 123 people had been killed and over 300 injured by landmines near Nagorno-Karabakh since the 1994 truce.[166]
HALO Trust, a UK-based demining NGO, was the only international organisation conductingdemining in Nagorno-Karabakh.[167] They destroyed 180,858 small arms ammunition, 48,572 units of "other explosive items", 12,423 cluster bombs, 8,733 anti-personnel landmines, and 2,584 anti-tank landmines between 2000 and 2016.[168] By 2018, they had cleared 88% of the territory's minefields, with a target to clear the rest by 2020. The main cities ofStepanakert andShusha, as well as the main north–south highway, had been cleared and were safe for travel. The demining effort had been largely funded by theUnited States Agency for International Development (USAID).[169]
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(September 2023)
A hotel in downtown Stepanakert
The socio-economic situation of the Republic of Artsakh was greatly affected by the 1991–1994 conflict. Yet, foreign investments began to come. The origin of most venture capital comes from Armenians in Armenia, Russia, United States, France, Australia, Iran, and the Middle East.
Notably the telecommunications sector was developed with Karabakh Telecom[170] investing millions of dollars in mobile telephony, spearheaded by a Lebanese company. Karabakh Telecom was disconnected from external communication on 27 September 2023, calls and internet traffic to the Nagorno-Karabakh region are carried out from then on only through telecom operators and providers of Azerbaijan.[171]
Copper and gold mining has been advancing since 2002 with development and launch of operations atDrmbon deposit.[172] Approximately 27–28 thousand tons (wet weight) of concentrates are produced[173] with average copper content of 19–21% and gold content of 32–34 g/t.[174] Azerbaijan considers any mining operations in Nagorno-Karabakh illegal and has vowed to engage an international audit company to determine the damages suffered by Azerbaijan's state-run ore management company as a result. In 2018, the government of Azerbaijan announced that it was planning to appeal to an international court and the law enforcement agencies of the countries where the mining companies involved are registered.[175]
The banking system was administered byArtsakhbank (a Yerevan-based Armenian bank fulfilling the functions of the state bank of Nagorno-Karabakh) and a number of other Armenian banks. The republic used theArmenian dram.
Wine growing and processing of agricultural products, particularly wine (i.e., storage of wine, wine stuffs, cognac alcohol) was one of the prioritised directions of the economic development.[176]
The republic developed a tourist industry geared to Armenia and theArmenian diaspora. The republic showed a major increase in tourists over the last several years of its existence because of Artsakh's many cultural sights. Before the 2020 war there were nine[177][non-primary source needed] hotels inStepanakert. The Artsakh development agency said 4,000 tourists visited Artsakh in 2005. The figures rose to 8,000 in 2010 (excluding visitors from Armenia).[178] The agency cooperated with the Armenia Tourism Development Agency (ATDA) as Armenia is the only way tourists (mainly Armenians) could access Artsakh. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Artsakh reported continuous expansion of visitors' geography.[179] Tourist infrastructure was developed around sites such as monasteries that showcase the Armenian history in the region,[33] with Islamic sites rarely restored,[180] while some ghost cities and areas near the front line were off limit to tourists.[33]
The Tourism Development Agency of Artsakh was established in Yerevan as a non-governmental organisation in the Republic of Armenia to promote tourism further in Artsakh. It made preparations for tour operators, travel agencies and journalists covering the region, and arranges for hotel services, shopping, catering, recreation centers.[citation needed]
Fort Mayraberd (10th–18th centuries) served as the primary bulwark against Turko-nomadic incursions from the eastern steppe. The fort is found to the east of the region's capital city ofStepanakert.
Govharagha Mosque (18th century), a mosque located in the city of Shusha, now under Azerbaijani control.
Janapar Trail is a marked trail, through mountains, valleys, and villages of Artsakh, with monasteries and fortresses along the way.[181] It is not hikable since the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. The trail was broken into day hikes, which brought tourists to a different village each night.[182] The paths have existed for centuries but now are marked specifically for hikers. The Himnakan Janapar (backbone trail), marked in 2007, leads from the northwest region ofShahumian to the southern town ofHadrut, now under Azerbaijani control. Side trails and mini trails take one to additional parts of Artsakh. The important sites passed along this hike includeDadivank Monastery,Gandzasar monastery,Shusha, the Karkar Canyon with its high cliffs, Zontik Waterfall, and the ruins of Hunot andGtichavank monastery.
One of the noteworthy side trails is the Gtichavank Loop Trail. This loop starts fromTugh Village, now under Azerbaijani control.
However, those who travelled to Artsakh without the Azerbaijani government's prior consent and permission were denied entry to Azerbaijan since the country considered Artsakh their territory unlawfully occupied by theArmenian army.[183] The Azerbaijani government also kept and published online a list of foreign nationals who visited these occupied areas without prior approval.[184] In late 2017, the list contained 699 names with additional details (date, country, profession, purpose of visit). The earliest entry recorded a visit to Artsakh that occurred on an unspecified date sometime between 1993 and 1996. The list included many journalists and members of parliaments of foreign countries.[citation needed]
Before the 2020 war, theArtsakh Wine Fest took place annually inTogh since 2014. The festival was held on the third Saturday of each September.[185]
The festival was initiated by the Department of Tourism and Protection of Historical Places of the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Youth Affairs of the Republic of Artsakh and was aimed to develop tourism in Artsakh.[186] It was meant to restore Artsakhwinemaking traditions. The festival provided a platform to the winemakers of Artsakh and Armenia giving them an opportunity to sell their products, exchange knowledge, promote their wine etc. The annual festival's program included grape stomping, tasting of traditional Artsakh cuisine, an exhibition of artworks, an exhibition of ancient artefacts that belonged to the Melik Yegan's Palace, as well as an exhibition and sale of local wine, where one could find products from 5 different regions of Artsakh andArmenia. Traditionally, the festival was accompanied by Armenian national singing and dancing. The festival evolved into a national holiday.[187]
The transportation system had been damaged by the 1991–1994 conflict. The North–South Artsakh motorway alone largely facilitated the development of the transportation system.[188] Before the 2020 war, the 169-kilometre (105 mi) Hadrut-Stepanakert-Askeran-Martakert motorway was the lifeline of Artsakh, and $25 million donated during the Hayastan All-Armenian Foundation telethons was allotted for the construction of the road.[188][189] A new route from the Armenian capitalYerevan to Stepanakert was planned to bypass the 8–9 hours drive via the Lachin corridor.[190] It was opened in September 2017.[191] A third road was planned in 2019.[192][193]
Authorities in the USSR opened a railway line in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast in 1944. It connected the capital, Stepanakert, andYevlax in Azerbaijan. It was built toRussian gauge of 1520mm. Due to the first Nagorno-Karabakh War, the line the railway was badly damaged and the line was closed.[194]
Stepanakert Airport, the sole civilian airport of the Republic of Artsakh, located about 8 kilometres (5 miles) east of the capital, has been closed since the onset of the war in 1990. It was expected that the airport would have regular flight services only toYerevan,Armenia, with state-owned carrierArtsakh Air,[195] but no flights had ever started.[196]
Communications
Karabakh Telecom (KT), the only telecommunications company in Artsakh, was started on February 1, 2002[197] by the Lebanese-Armenian businessman and ChairmanPierre Fattouch.[198] In 2019, Fattouch was charged with tax evasion in Lebanon and in July 2019 a Lebanese Prosecutor General ordered a closure of quarries owned by Fattouch for failure to acquire a legal license.[199] On December 10, 2020, theOrganized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP) investigated the offshore firmCrossbridge Capital, which manages billions in shareholder assets, including those of Pierre Fattouch.[200][201] KT was also run by the General Director Ralf Yerikian, a Lebanese-born businessman of Armenian origin.[202] The company was considered a CJSC, a closedjoint stock company, in which shares of company stock can be bought or sold by shareholders. The company had USD $9.9 million in revenue in the 4th quarter of 2019. From Q1 of 2020 until Q2 of 2021, it shared the same amount in revenue for every quarter – USD $11.1 million. The company has not publicly disclosed their accurate financials between 2020 and 2021. It has invested over USD $12 millions in mobile telecommunication projects throughout Artsakh.[citation needed]
In September 2023, over half of Artsakh's ethnic Armenian population fled the country. According to Armenian Prime MinisterNikol Pashinyan, 100,417 people arrived in Armenia from Artsakh.[203] In 2015, the country's population was 145,000, made up of 99.7% Armenians.[2] This composition represents a sharp change from the 1979 and 1989 census, when the Azerbaijani population was 23 and 21.5 per cent, respectively. The annual birth rate was recorded at 2,200–2,300 per year, an increase from nearly 1,500 in 1999.
OSCE report, released in March 2011, estimates the population of the "seven occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh" to be 14,000, and states "there has been no significant growth in the population since 2005."[204][205] AnInternational Crisis Group report published in December 2019 recorded the population of these territories to be 17,000, or 11.48% of the total population: 15,000 west and southwest of the former oblast, and 2000 in theAgdam District.[206]
Until 2000, the country's net migration was at a negative.[207] For the first half of 2007, 1,010 births and 659 deaths were reported, with a net emigration of 27.[208]
According to age group: 15,700 (0–6), 25,200 (7–17) 75,800 (18–59) and 21,000 (60+)
Population of the Republic of Artsakh (2000–2008)[209][210]
Year
Population (000s)
Urban (000s)
Rural (000s)
Birth rate
Death rate
NGR
Net immigration
2000
134.4
68.4
66.0
16.6
8.8
7.7
16.1
2001
135.7
68.7
67.0
17.0
7.9
9.1
11.5
2002
136.6
69.3
67.3
16.0
9.1
6.9
4.9
2003
137.0
69.1
67.9
15.0
9.0
6.0
1.3
2004
137.2
69.8
67.4
15.3
9.5
5.8
−2.6
2005
137.7
70.5
67.2
14.6
9.2
5.4
1.7
2006
137.7
70.8
66.9
15.3
9.0
6.3
−3.2
2007
138.8
71.6
67.2
15.4
8.8
6.6
−1.4
2008
139.9
72.7
67.2
17.3
9.4
7.9
2.6
Resettlement attempts after 1994
From 1989 to 1994, there was significant depopulation in the territory that ended up held by Artsakh, leaving only around 40% of the pre-war population. Much of this was due to the displacement and death of Azerbaijani residents in both the former NKOA and the surrounding territories, leaving some former urban areas virtually empty. The Russian minority present also declined, meaning the resulting population was almost 100% Armenian. Beginning in 1995, the population began to increase due to births and immigration.[211]
While the territory captured outside the former NKAO was initially treated as a potential bargaining chip, it slowly began to be seen as part of the country by both officials and the general population.[33] TheStepanakert-based administration launched various programs aimed at bringing in permanent Armenian settlers to the depopulated lands, including into regions previously populated by Azeris, with those that bordered Armenia – Lachin and Kalbajar – being the priority.[212] Lachin was key to a land connection between Armenia and the former NKAO, and Kalbajar had water resources utilised by both Artsakh and Armenia.[33]
Azerbaijan regards this as a violation of Article 49 of theFourth Geneva Convention, to which Armenia became party in 1993, whereby "[t]he Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies".[213] The ruling party of Azerbaijan accuses the Armenian side of artificially changing the demographic situation and the ethnic composition of the occupied region so that it can lay future claims to them, comparing this to the 1950s campaign of resettling diaspora Armenians in previously Azeri-populated locales in Soviet Armenia where Azeris were forciblydeported from in 1948–1950.[214]
In 1979, the total Armenian population of the districts of Kalbajar, Lachin, Qubadli, Zangilan, Jabrayil, Fuzuli and Agdam was around 1,400 people.[215] An OSCE fact-finding mission established at Azerbaijan's request visited these regions in February 2005 with the intention to assess the scale of the settlement attempts. The mission's findings showed that these districts had as of 2005 an overall population of 14,000 people, mostly living in precarious social conditions. It consisted primarily of ethnic Armenians displaced from the non-conflict zones of Azerbaijan during the war. It was noted, however, that most of them had settled in the conflict zone after having lived in Armenia for several years and some held Armenian passports and even voted in Armenian elections. A smaller segment of the settlers was originally from the towns ofGyumri andSpitak in Armenia who had lived in temporary shelters following the devastating1988 earthquake before moving to Karabakh, as well as a small number of natives of Yerevan who moved there for financial reasons.[216] A field assessment mission revisited the region in October 2010, confirming that there had not been much growth in population or change in the living conditions of the settlers.[217] The Co-Chairs of the Minsk Group who visited Nagorno-Karabakh, Kalbajar and Lachin in 2014 reported seeing signs of improvements in the infrastructure but could not observe any indications that the size of the population had changed in recent years.[218]
By June 2015, an estimated 17,000 ofSyria's once 80,000-strong Armenian population had fled thecivil war and sought refuge in Armenia.[219]David Babayan, spokesperson of the Artsakh leader Bako Sahakyan, confirmed that some of those refugees had been resettled in Artsakh.[220]The Economist put the number of the resettled families at 30 as of June 2017.[221] In December 2014, Armenian media cited local municipal authorities in stating that dozens of Syrian Armenian families had been resettled in the disputed zone, in particular in the city ofLachin and the village ofXanlıq inQubadli.[222] Azerbaijan's Minister of Foreign AffairsElmar Mammadyarov expressed his concern over Armenia's attempts to change the demographic situation in the region and informed of his intention to raise this issue with the Minsk Group.[223]
In February 2019, Armenia'sNational Security Service directorArtur Vanetsyan visited Nagorno-Karabakh amid public concern aboutNikol Pashinyan's government alleged readiness to cede some of the Armenian-controlled territories as part of a peace settlement. Vanetsyan pointed out that settling Armenians and investing into infrastructural projects along the Iranian border, in the previously Azeri-populated regions outside of the former autonomous province, was "a clear message" to the international community that there would be no territorial concessions. He referred to the ongoing settlement efforts as a method of "guaranteeing security".[224] Azerbaijan's Foreign Ministry reacted by qualifying Vanetsyan's statement as an "attempt to undermine the peace talks and defy the work of the mediators" and vowed to address the issue to the UN and the OSCE.[225]
The ceasefire ending the 2020 war stipulated that these territories were to be turned over to Azerbaijani control. Armenian settlers in these areas evacuated prior to the arrival of Azerbaijani forces.[226]
Ethnic composition
Ethnic Groups of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (1926–1989) and the Republic of Artsakh (2015) according to census data[227]
Armenian functioned as the only state language and an official language in the Republic of Artsakh,[230] and was the native language of over 99% of the population. Under Soviet rule, the ethnic Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh became more proficient in Russian than both Azerbaijanis in the region and Armenians in the Armenian SSR. Few Armenians learnt Azerbaijani, and the language was actively removed following the Nagorno-Karabakh War. While Russian remained in some use after this time, and was valued as a second language, it was not widely spoken at a native level.[34]
Russian was widely spoken in Artsakh, with efforts having been made since late 2020 in the parliament in Stepanakert to establish it as an additional official language; the official justifications for this being that Russian was already the second language of many residents, and that it would create "conditions for deepening cooperation in all spheres, [as well as contributing] to the development of relations within the legal framework."[231] TheParliament of Artsakh approved a bill grating Russian official status on March 25, 2021, with 27 votes in favour, 0 votes against and 2 abstentions.[230]
Yeghishe Arakyal Monastery (5th–13th centuries) commemorating St. Yeghishe, the famous evangeliser of Armenia's eastern lands. The church serves as a burial ground for the fifth century's King Vachagan II the Pious, the most well-known representative of the Arranshahik line of east Armenian monarchs. The monastery is located in theMartakert Province.
Bri Yeghtsi Monastery (13th century) that centres on embedded khachkars, unique-to-Armenia stone memorials with engraved crosses. The monastery is located near the village ofHatsi in theMartuni Province.
Gandzasar monastery (13th century), ("Գանձասար" in Armenian) is a historical monastery in Artsakh. Artsakhi government's aim is to include the Gandzasar Monastery into the directory of the UNESCO's World Heritage Sites.
Yerits Mankants Monastery (meaning "three infants" in Armenian; 17th century) is known for hosting the seat of Artsakh's rival clergy to that of the Holy See of Gandzasar. The monastery is located in theMartakert Province.
Katarovank Monastery was founded in the fourth century, and is located close to the village ofHin Tagher in theHadrut Province. The present-day chapel is a 17th-century structure. There are Armeniankhachkars near the chapel. The monastery offers a unique panoramic view to theRiver Araxes.
Dadivank Monastery (Armenian:Դադիվանք), also known as Khutavank (Armenian:Խութավանք – Monastery on the Hill), that was built between the 9th and 13th century. It is one of the most architecturally and culturally significant monasteries in Artsakh. The western façade of Dadivank's Memorial Cathedral bears one of the most extensive Armenian lapidary (stone-inscribed) texts,[dubious –discuss] and has one of the largest collection of medieval Armenianfrescoes. Dadivank is named after St. Dadi, a disciple ofApostle Thaddeus who preached the Holy Gospel in Artsakh in the first century. St. Dadi's tomb was later discovered by archaeologists in 2007. The monastery is in theShahumyan Province and has been placed under the protection of the Russian peacekeeping forces.[236]
Gtichavank Monastery (13th century) has design features shared with the architectural style of medieval Armenia's capital city of Ani. The monastery is located in theHadrut Province.
Ghazanchetsots Cathedral, built 1868–1888 (Սուրբ Ամենափրկիչ Ղազանչեցոց Եկեղեցի – "Surb Amenap'rkich Ghazanchets'ots' Yekeghets'i" inArmenian), also known as theCathedral of Christ the Savior and theShushi Cathedral, is anArmenian church located inShusha. It is the main cathedral and headquarters of theArmenian Apostolic Church's "Diocese of Artsakh".
Just uphill from the cathedral in Shusha is the church ofKanach Zham ('Green Church' in Armenian), built in 1847.
Education in Artsakh was compulsory, and was free up to the age of 18. The education system was inherited from theold system of theSoviet Union.[237] Artsakh's school system was severely damaged because of the 1991–1994 conflict. But the government of the Republic of Artsakh with considerable aid from the Republic ofArmenia and with donations from theArmenian diaspora, rebuilt many of the schools. Prior to the 2020 war, Artsakh had around 250 schools of various sizes, with more than 200 lying in the regions. The student population was estimated at more than 20,000, with almost half in the capital city ofStepanakert.
Artsakh State University was founded by Artsakh and Armenian governments' joint efforts, with main campus in Stepanakert. The university opening ceremony took place on 10 May 1992. Yerevan University of Management also opened a branch in Stepanakert.[citation needed]
Universities
This is alist of universities in Republic of Artsakh, a formerbreakaway state in theCaucasus region.
"We Are Our Mountains" (Armenian:Մենք ենք մեր սարերը) bySargis Baghdasaryan is a monument located inStepanakert.[243] The sculpture was widely regarded as a symbol of the Republic of Artsakh. It is a large monument fromtuff of an old Armenian man and woman hewn from rock, representing themountain people of Artsakh. It is also known asTatik yev Papik (Տատիկ և Պապիկ, "Grandma and Grandpa") in Armenian. The sculpture was featured prominently onArtsakh's coat of arms. Artsakh has often been portrayed as a "shield" to the Armenian nation that protects it fromPan-Turkism.[244][245][246] When lecturing his fighters during the First Nagorno Karabakh-War,Monte Melkonian would say "If we lose this land, we turn the last page on Armenian history."[247][246]
Museums
Artsakh State Museum
Artsakh State Museum was the historical museum of the Republic of Artsakh. Located at 4 Sasunstsi David Street, inStepanakert, the museum offered an assortment of ancient artefacts and Christian manuscripts. There were also more recent items, ranging in date from the 19th century to World War II and from events of the Karabakh Independence War.
Sports in the Republic of Artsakh were organised by the Artsakh Ministry of Culture and Youth. Due to the non-recognition of Artsakh, sports teams from the country could not compete in most international tournaments.[citation needed]
^Zürcher, Christoph[in German] (2007).The Post-Soviet Wars: Rebellion, Ethnic Conflict, and Nationhood in the Caucasus ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). New York: New York University Press. p. 168.ISBN9780814797099.
^"Search". 29 September 2023.Archived from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved26 September 2023.
^abc"Constitution of the Republic of Artsakh".Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic.Archived from the original on 27 October 2022. Retrieved19 April 2020.The names 'Republic of Artsakh' and 'Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh' are identical.
^Parts of a Circle I: The Road to War (Documentary). Media Initiatives Center, Internews Azerbaijan, and the Humanitarian Research Public Union. May 2020.
^Chorbajian, Levon; Donabédian, Patrick; Mutafian, Claude (1994).The Caucasian knot: the history & geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh. Politics in contemporary Asia. London: Atlantic Highlands, NJ : Zed Books. p. 37.ISBN978-1-85649-287-4.
^abHughes, James (2002).Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union: Regions in Conflict. London: Cass. p. 211.ISBN978-0-7146-8210-5.Indeed, Nagorno-Karabakh is de facto part of Armenia.
^Chorbajian, Levon; Donabedian Patrick; Mutafian, Claude.The Caucasian Knot: The History and Geo-Politics of Nagorno-Karabagh. NJ: Zed Books, 1994, p. 52ISBN9781856492881
^Christopher Walker. "The Armenian presence in Mountainous Karabakh", in John F. R. Wright et al.:Transcaucasian Boundaries (SOAS/GRC Geopolitics). 1995, p. 91ISBN9780312129125
^Strabo (1903)."11.14". In Hamilton, H.C.; Falconer, W. (eds.).Geography. London: George Bell & Sons.Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved4 July 2022 – viaPerseus Project.
^Roller, Duane W (2018).A historical and topographical guide to the geography of Strabo. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 678.ISBN978-1-316-84820-3.OCLC1127455921.
^Baratov, Boris (1992).Ангел Арцаха: памятники армянского искусства Нагорного Карабаха. Moscow: Editions "Linguiste". p. 6.
^Krüger, Heiko (2010), "Involvement of the Republic of Armenia in the conflict of Nagorno-Karabakh",The Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 93–114,doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14393-9_2,ISBN9783642117879
^Loe, Catherine (27 April 2023)."Azerbaijan sets up checkpoints on the Lachin corridor".Economist Intelligence Unit.Archived from the original on 2 August 2023. Retrieved3 May 2023.The move [installation of a checkpoint] has increased the blockade of Nagorny Karabakh...A checkpoint on the border would give Azerbaijan the ability to stop any cars travelling between Armenia and Nagorny Karabakh.
^Hauer, Neil (31 July 2023)."Karabakh blockade reaches critical point as food supplies run low".www.intellinews.com.Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved1 August 2023.Occasional ICRC and Russian traffic continued to pass until June 15, at which point Azerbaijan halted all humanitarian deliveries. No food, medicine or fuel has entered Nagorno-Karabakh since.
^"New Troubles in Nagorno-Karabakh: Understanding the Lachin Corridor Crisis".www.crisisgroup.org. 22 May 2023.Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved23 May 2023.While travellers were already few due to the blockade, the ICRC reports that its ability to get people across has been curtailed [since the installation of the checkpoint], leaving only the Russian peacekeepers to facilitate trips to Armenia for medical care.
^"June Alerts and May Trends 2023".www.crisisgroup.org. 31 May 2023.Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved19 June 2023.Checkpoint on Lachin corridor faced fierce opposition amid humanitarian crisis....Azerbaijani military consolidated [the] blockade, however, leading to even fewer crossings and reduced transportation of goods.
^Shahverdyan, Lilit (12 January 2023)."Blackouts and food rationing as Karabakh blockade enters second month".Eurasianet.Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved17 January 2023.But the supplies are meager compared to the pre-blockade delivery of 12,000 tons of goods monthly, and barely meet the needs of the local population, which Armenian sources estimate at around 120,000.
^Cornell, Svante (2011).Azerbaijan Since Independence. New York: M.E. Sharpe. p. 135.ISBN978-0-7656-3004-9.Following the war, the territories that fell under Armenian control, in particular Mountainous Karabakh itself, were slowly integrated into Armenia. Officially, Karabakh and Armenia remain separate political entities, but for most practical matters the two entities are unified.
^Waters, Christopher (2006)."Law in Places That Don't Exist".Denver Journal of International Law & Policy.34 (3):408–410.Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved4 July 2022.
^Joint session of the Nagorno Karabakh Oblast and Shahoumian regional councils of people's deputies with the participation of deputies of councils of all levels (2 September 1991)."Declaration: On proclamation of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic".Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic. Archived fromthe original on 3 January 2008.
^"Azerb.com – Regions". Travel-images.com. 24 March 2007.Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved6 May 2012.
^"Table 1.4: De Jure Population by Administrative Territorial Distribution and Density (with map)".Census in NKR 2005(PDF) (Report). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 6 March 2009. Retrieved6 May 2012.
^"Вице-спикер парламента Абхазии: Выборы в НКР соответствуют всем международным стандартам"(24 May 2010).Archived from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved3 June 2021.Абхазия, Южная Осетия, НКР и Приднестровье уже давно признали независимость друг друга и очень тесно сотрудничают между собой", – сказал вице-спикер парламента Абхазии. ... "...Абхазия признала независимость Нагорно-Карабахской Республики..." – сказал он.
^Hughes, James (2002).Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union: Regions in Conflict (1st ed.). London: Cass. p. 211.ISBN9780714682105.Indeed, Nagomo–Karabakh is de facto part of Armenia.
^"Armenia expects Russian support in Karabakh war".Hürriyet Daily News. 20 May 2011.Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved25 June 2013.While internationally recognized as Azerbaijani territory, the enclave has declared itself an independent republic but is administered as a de facto part of Armenia.
^Central Asia and The Caucasus, Information and Analytical Center, 2009, Issues 55–60, p. 74, "Nagorno-Karabakh became de facto a part of Armenia (its quasi-statehood can dupe no one) as a result of aggression."
^Cornell, Svante (2011).Azerbaijan Since Independence. New York: M.E. Sharpe. p. 135.ISBN9780765630049.Following the war, the territories that fell under Armenian control, in particular Mountainous Karabakh itself, were slowly integrated into Armenia. Officially, Karabakh and Armenia remain separate political entities, but for most practical matters the two entities are unified.
^ռ/կ, Ազատություն (23 June 2006)."U.S. Confirms Vote Option For Karabakh".«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» Ռադիոկայան (in Armenian).Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved18 December 2016.
^ab"Armenia – 2001",World Refugee Survey – Country Reports, US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, January 2001, archived fromthe original on 7 January 2008 According to the Nagorno Karabakh Republic information, Some 350,000 Armenians were expelled from Azerbaijan and some 36,000 of them came to Nagorno Karabakh. Additionally some 71,000 Karabakh Armenians were internally displaced; see:"Fact Sheet: Refugees & Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) In Nagorno Karabakh"(PDF). Washington, DC: The Office of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic (NKR) in the USA. May 2006.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved9 May 2010.
^В мире растет интерес к Арцаху [Interest in Artsakh is growing in the world].Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic (in Russian). 24 January 2011.Archived from the original on 26 May 2011. Retrieved13 April 2011.
^Գինու փառատոն Արցախում [Wine festival in Artsakh].Ապառաժ – Նորություններ Արցախից [Aparaj – Artsakh News] (in Armenian). 18 October 2014.Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved27 September 2019.
^Գինու փառատոն Արցախում [Wine festival in Artsakh].Արմարլուր – Armenia Artsakh News (in Armenian). 3 March 2015. Archived fromthe original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved27 September 2019.
^Евразийская панорама [Eurasian panorama].Население и общество [Population and Society] (in Russian).Higher School of Economics Institute of Demography. Sec. 11.Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved6 May 2012 – via Демоскоп [Demoscope] Weekly.
^Population(PDF).Statistical Yearbook of NKR (Report). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 11 September 2008.
^"Population"(PDF).Stat-nkr.am.Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved18 December 2016.
^Pavstos Byuzand. Armenian History. Yerevan. 1987. page 17
^Movses Kaghankatvatsi.History of Aluank. Book I. Chapter XIV.
After accepting the rank of [the country's] high priest, he left to enlighten the countries of Iberia and Aluank. He arrived in the ghavar of Haband and preached and admonished not to break the commandments of the Son of God. Here he began the building of a church in Amaras and hired workers and foremen to finish it. After returning to Armenia, he consecrated and appointed instead of himself his son Vrtanes, filled with his father's virtues, who lived according to the [Christian] teaching and punished and admonished all those who adhered to the heresy of idol-worship.
^Khatcherian, Hrair,Artsakh: A Photographic Journey, p. 49
^"Deconstructed: The Hidden Siege of Nagorno-Karabakh".The Intercept. 20 January 2023.Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved30 January 2023.Journalist Alison Tahmizian: "Artsakh is always called the shield of Armenia, because it's been shielding Armenia from what's coming next, what they would like to implement next, which is to seize southern Armenia"
^"Artsakh is a 'shield' that has protected Armenia for centuries, FM says".www.panorama.am.Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved30 January 2023.In December, 2022, Artsakh Foreign Minister David Babayan wrote "[Artsakh] is a shield that has protected Armenia for centuries and ensured the security of the Armenian people."
Waal, Thomas de (2004).Black garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan through peace and war. New York: New York University Press. p. 42.ISBN9780814719459.
Further reading
Ghazaryan, Narine (2021). "The Legal System of Nagorno-Karabakh: International and European Considerations".Unrecognized Entities. Brill Nijhoff.ISBN978-90-04-49910-2.
.svg)
.svg)
_en_juillet_2017.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)