Renaissance architecture is the European architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 16th centuries in different regions, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements ofancient Greek andRoman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followedGothic architecture and was succeeded byBaroque architecture andneoclassical architecture.
Developed first inFlorence, withFilippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. It began in Florence in the early 15th century and reflected a revival of classical Greek and Roman principles such as symmetry, proportion, and geometry. This movement was supported by wealthy patrons, including the Medici family and the Catholic Church, who commissioned works to display both religious devotion and political power. Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, and later Andrea Palladio revolutionized urban landscapes with domes, columns, and harmonious facades. While Renaissance architecture flourished most in Italy, its influence spread across Europe reaching France, Spain, and the Low Countries adapting to local traditions. Public buildings, churches, and palaces became symbols of civic pride and imperial strength, linking humanism with empire-building.[2]
Renaissance style places emphasis onsymmetry,proportion,geometry and the regularity of parts, as demonstrated in the architecture ofclassical antiquity and in particular ancientRoman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements ofcolumns,pilasters andlintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemisphericaldomes,niches andaediculae replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles ofmedieval buildings.
Although the term Renaissance was used first by the French historianJules Michelet, it was given its more lasting definition from the Swiss historianJacob Burckhardt, whose bookThe Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860,[3] was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of theItalian Renaissance. The folio of measured drawingsÉdifices de Rome moderne; ou, Recueil des palais, maisons, églises, couvents et autres monuments (The Buildings of Modern Rome), first published in 1840 by Paul Letarouilly, also played an important part in the revival of interest in this period.Erwin Panofsky,Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, (New York: Harper and Row, 1960) The Renaissance style was recognized by contemporaries in the term"all'antica", or "in the ancient manner" (of the Romans).
Palladio's engraving of Bramante's TempiettoPlan of Bramante's Tempietto in Montorio
Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into three phases.[note 1] Whereas art historians might talk of anEarly Renaissance period, in which they include developments in 14th-century painting and sculpture, this is usually not the case in architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the late 14th century did not produce buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a result, the wordRenaissance among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400 toc. 1525, or later in the case of non-Italian Renaissances.
During theQuattrocento,[note 2] sometimes known as the Early Renaissance,[note 3] concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. The study of classical antiquity led in particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation. Space, as an element of architecture, was used differently than it was in theMiddle Ages. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this is theBasilica of San Lorenzo, Florence byFilippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).[5]
During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater confidence. The most representative architect isDonato Bramante (1444–1514), who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His Tempietto diSan Pietro in Montorio (1503) was directly inspired by circularRoman temples. He was, however, hardly a slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century.[6]
During theMannerist period, architects experimented with usingarchitectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style wasMichelangelo (1475–1564), who frequently used thegiant order in his architecture, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade.[7] He used this in his design for thePiazza del Campidoglio in Rome. Prior to the 20th century, the termMannerism had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms.[8]
From Renaissance to Baroque
As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a sort of Proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings. Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region. Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging tendencies in the work ofMichelangelo,Giulio Romano andAndrea Palladio, led to the Baroque style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far afield as Mexico[note 4] and thePhilippines.[note 5]
Italy of the 15th century, and the city of Florence in particular, was home to the Renaissance. It is in Florence that the new architectural style had its beginning, not slowly evolving in the way thatGothic grew out ofRomanesque, but consciously brought to being by particular architects who sought to revive the order of a past "Golden Age". The scholarly approach to the architecture of the ancient coincided with the general revival of learning. A number of factors were influential in bringing this about.
The RomanesqueFlorence Baptistery was the object of Brunelleschi's studies of perspective.
Italian architects had always preferred forms that were clearly defined and structural members that expressed their purpose.[9] Many Tuscan Romanesque buildings demonstrate these characteristics, as seen in theFlorence Baptistery andPisa Cathedral.
Italy had never fully adopted the Gothic style of architecture. Apart fromMilan Cathedral, (influenced by FrenchRayonnant Gothic), few Italian churches show the emphasis on vertical, the clustered shafts, ornate tracery and complex ribbed vaulting that characterise Gothic in other parts of Europe.[9]
The presence, particularly in Rome, of ancient architectural remains showing the orderedClassical style provided an inspiration to artists at a time when philosophy was also turning towards the Classical.[9]
In the 15th century,Florence andVenice extended their power through much of the area that surrounded them, making the movement of artists possible. This enabled Florence to have significant artistic influence inMilan, and through Milan,France.
In 1377, the return of the Pope from theAvignon Papacy[10] and the re-establishment of thePapal court in Rome, brought wealth and importance to that city, as well as a renewal in the importance of the Pope in Italy, which was further strengthened by theCouncil of Constance in 1417. Successive Popes, especiallyJulius II, 1503–13, sought to extend the Papacy'stemporal power throughout Italy.[11]
In the early Renaissance,Venice controlled sea trade over goods from the East. The large towns ofNorthern Italy were prosperous through trade with the rest of Europe,Genoa providing a seaport for the goods of France and Spain;Milan andTurin being centres of overland trade, and maintaining substantial metalworking industries. Trade brought wool fromEngland to Florence, ideally located on the river for the production of fine cloth, the industry on which its wealth was founded. By dominatingPisa, Florence gained a seaport, and became the most powerful state in Tuscany. In this commercial climate, one family in particular turned their attention from trade to the lucrative business of money-lending. TheMedici became the chief bankers to the princes of Europe, becoming virtually princes themselves as they did so, by reason of both wealth and influence. Along the trade routes, and thus offered some protection by commercial interest, moved not only goods but also artists, scientists and philosophers.[11]
The return of thePope Gregory XI fromAvignon in September 1377 and the resultant new emphasis onRome as the center ofChristian spirituality, brought about a surge in the building of churches in Rome such as had not taken place for nearly a thousand years. This commenced in the mid 15th century and gained momentum in the 16th century, reaching its peak in theBaroque period. The construction of theSistine Chapel with its uniquely important decorations and the entire rebuilding ofSt. Peter's Basilica, one of Christendom's most significant churches, were part of this process.[12]
In the wealthyRepublic of Florence, the impetus for church-building was more civic than spiritual. The unfinished state of the enormousFlorence Cathedral dedicated to theBlessed Virgin Mary did no honour to the city under her patronage. However, as the technology and finance were found to complete it, the rising dome did credit not only to the Virgin Mary, its architect and the Church but also to theSignoria, the Guilds and the sectors of the city from which the manpower to construct it was drawn. The dome inspired further religious works in Florence.
The development of printed books, the rediscovery of ancient writings, the expanding of political and trade contacts and the exploration of the world all increased knowledge and the desire for education.[9]
The reading of philosophies that were not based on Christian theology led to the development ofhumanism through which it was clear that while God had established and maintained order in the Universe, it was the role of Man to establish and maintain order in Society.[13]
Through humanism, civic pride and the promotion of civil peace and order were seen as the marks of citizenship. This led to the building of structures such as Brunelleschi'sHospital of the Innocents with its elegant colonnade forming a link between the charitable building and the public square, and theLaurentian Library where the collection of books established by the Medici family could be consulted by scholars.[14]
Some major ecclesiastical building works were also commissioned, not by the church, but by guilds representing the wealth and power of the city. Brunelleschi's dome at Florence Cathedral, more than any other building, belonged to the populace because the construction of each of the eight segments was achieved by a different quarter of the city.[9][14]
As in thePlatonic Academy ofAthens, it was seen by those of Humanist understanding that those people who had the benefit of wealth and education ought to promote the pursuit of learning and the creation of that which was beautiful. To this end, wealthy families—theMedici of Florence, theGonzaga of Mantua, theFarnese in Rome, theSforzas in Milan—gathered around them people of learning and ability, promoting the skills and creating employment for the most talented artists and architects of their day.[14]
During the Renaissance, architecture became not only a question of practice, but also a matter for theoretical discussion.Printing played a large role in the dissemination of ideas.
The first treatise on architecture wasDe re aedificatoria ("On the Subject of Building") byLeon Battista Alberti in 1450. It was to some degree dependent onVitruvius'sDe architectura, a manuscript of which was discovered in 1414 in a library in Switzerland.De re aedificatoria in 1485 became the first printed book on architecture.
Sebastiano Serlio (1475 – c. 1554) produced the next important text, the first volume of which appeared in Venice in 1537; it was entitledRegole generali d'architettura ("General Rules of Architecture"). It is known as Serlio's "Fourth Book" since it was the fourth in Serlio's original plan of a treatise in seven books. In all, five books were published.
In 1570,Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) publishedI quattro libri dell'architettura ("The Four Books of Architecture") inVenice. This book was widely printed and responsible to a great degree for spreading the ideas of the Renaissance through Europe. All these books were intended to be read and studied not only by architects, but also by patrons.
Urbino was animportant centre with theDucal Palace being constructed forFederico da Montefeltro in the mid 15th century. The Duke employedLuciano Laurana fromDalmatia, renowned for his expertise at fortification. The design incorporates much of the earlier medieval building and includes an unusual turreted three-storeyed façade. Laurana was assisted by Francesco di Giorgio Martini. Later parts of the building are clearly Florentine in style, particularly the inner courtyard, but it is not known who the designer was.[15]
TheClassical orders were analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes.[note 6] While the obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance architects, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time, as had the structure of cities. Among the earliest buildings of the reborn Classicism were the type of churches that the Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models for the type of large city dwellings required by wealthy merchants of the 15th century. Conversely, there was no call for enormous sporting fixtures andpublic bath houses such as the Romans had built.
The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually based on a module. Within a church, the module is often the width of an aisle. The need to integrate the design of the plan with the façade was introduced as an issue in the work ofFilippo Brunelleschi, but he was never able to carry this aspect of his work into fruition. The first building to demonstrate this wasBasilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua byLeone Battista Alberti. The development of the plan in secular architecture was to take place in the 16th century and culminated with the work ofPalladio.
Façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis. Church façades are generally surmounted by apediment and organised by a system ofpilasters, arches andentablatures. The columns and windows show a progression towards the centre. One of the first true Renaissance façades wasPienza Cathedral (1459–1462), which has been attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known asRossellino) withLeone Battista Alberti perhaps having some responsibility in its design as well.
Domestic buildings are often surmounted by acornice. There is a regular repetition of openings on each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or rusticated surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for thePalazzo Rucellai (1446 and 1451) in Florence with its three registers ofpilasters.
Classical Orders, engraving from theEncyclopédie vol. 18. 18th century.
Roman and Greek orders of columns are used:Tuscan,Doric,Ionic,Corinthian andComposite. The orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns,pilasters, andentablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated system was in theOld Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi.
Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental scale at theBasilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua.
Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. Thebarrel vault is returned to architectural vocabulary as at St. Andrea in Mantua.
The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally. After the success of the dome in Brunelleschi's design forFlorence Cathedral and its use in Bramante's plan forSt. Peter's Basilica (1506) in Rome, the dome became an indispensable element in church architecture and later even for secular architecture, such as Palladio'sVilla Rotonda.[note 7]
Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set with in an arch or surmounted by a triangular or segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently have a large or decorative keystone.
Windows may be paired and set within asemi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and triangular or segmentalpediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect is thePalazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517.
In the Mannerist period thePalladian arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring light into the building and in domestic architecture, to give views. Stained glass, although sometimes present, is not a feature.
External walls are generally constructed of brick, rendered, or faced with stone in highly finishedashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The corners of buildings are often emphasized by rusticatedquoins. Basements and ground floors were oftenrusticated, as at thePalazzo Medici Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence. Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced withlime wash. For more formal spaces, internal surfaces are decorated withfrescoes.
Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved with great precision. Studying and mastering the details of the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of Renaissance theory. The different orders each required different sets of details. Some architects were stricter in their use of classical details than others, but there was also a good deal of innovation in solving problems, especially at corners. Mouldings stand out around doors and windows rather than being recessed, as in Gothic architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or placed on plinths. They are not integral to the building as in Medieval architecture.[9]
The person generally credited with bringing about the Renaissance view of architecture is Filippo Brunelleschi, (1377–1446).[17] The underlying feature of the work of Brunelleschi was "order".
In the early 15th century, Brunelleschi began to look at the world to see what the rules were that governed one's way of seeing. He observed that the way one sees regular structures such as theFlorence Baptistery and the tiled pavement surrounding it follows a mathematical order –linear perspective.
The buildings remaining among the ruins of ancient Rome appeared to respect a simple mathematical order in the way that Gothic buildings did not. One incontrovertible rule governed allAncient Roman architecture – a semi-circular arch is exactly twice as wide as it is high. A fixed proportion with implications of such magnitude occurred nowhere inGothic architecture. A Gothic pointed arch could be extended upwards or flattened to any proportion that suited the location. Arches of differing angles frequently occurred within the same structure. No set rules of proportion applied.
From the observation of the architecture of Rome came a desire for symmetry and careful proportion in which the form and composition of the building as a whole and all its subsidiary details have fixed relationships, each section in proportion to the next, and the architectural features serving to define exactly what those rules of proportion are.[18] Brunelleschi gained the support of a number of wealthy Florentine patrons, including the Silk Guild andCosimo de' Medici.
Brunelleschi's first major architectural commission was for the enormous brick dome which covers the central space of Florence's cathedral, designed byArnolfo di Cambio in the 14th century but left unroofed. While often described as the first building of the Renaissance, Brunelleschi's daring design utilises the pointed Gothic arch and Gothic ribs that were apparently planned by Arnolfo. It seems certain, however, that while stylistically Gothic, in keeping with the building it surmounts, the dome is in fact structurally influenced by the great dome of Ancient Rome, which Brunelleschi could hardly have ignored in seeking a solution. This is the dome of thePantheon, a circular temple, now a church.
Inside the Pantheon's single-shell concrete dome is coffering which greatly decreases the weight. The vertical partitions of the coffering effectively serve as ribs, although this feature does not dominate visually. At the apex of the Pantheon's dome is an opening, 8 meters across. Brunelleschi was aware that a dome of enormous proportion could in fact be engineered without a keystone. The dome in Florence is supported by the eight large ribs and sixteen more internal ones holding a brick shell, with the bricks arranged in a herringbone manner. Although the techniques employed are different, in practice, both domes comprise a thick network of ribs supporting very much lighter and thinner infilling. And both have a large opening at the top.[9]
The new architectural philosophy of the Renaissance is best demonstrated in the churches of San Lorenzo, andSanto Spirito, Florence. Designed by Brunelleschi in about 1425 and 1428 respectively, both have the shape of theLatin cross. Each has a modular plan, each portion being a multiple of the square bay of the aisle. This same formula controlled also the vertical dimensions. In the case of Santo Spirito, which is entirely regular in plan, transepts and chancel are identical, while the nave is an extended version of these. In 1434 Brunelleschi designed the first Renaissance centrally planned building,Santa Maria degli Angeli, Florence. It is composed of a centraloctagon surrounded by a circuit of eight smaller chapels. From this date onwards numerous churches were built in variations of these designs.[19]
Michelozzo Michelozzi (1396–1472), was another architect under patronage of theMedici family, his most famous work being thePalazzo Medici Riccardi, which he was commissioned to design forCosimo de' Medici in 1444. A decade later he built theVilla Medici, Fiesole. Among his other works for Cosimo are the library at the Convent ofSan Marco, Florence. He went into exile in Venice for a time with his patron. He was one of the first architects to work in the Renaissance style outside Italy, building a palace atDubrovnik.[12]
The Palazzo Medici Riccardi is Classical in the details of its pedimented windows and recessed doors, but, unlike the works of Brunelleschi and Alberti, there are noclassical orders of columns in evidence. Instead, Michelozzo has respected the Florentine liking for rusticated stone. He has seemingly created three orders out of the three defined rusticated levels, the whole being surmounted by an enormous Roman-style cornice which juts out over the street by 2.5 meters.[9]
Leon Battista Alberti, born in Genoa (1402–1472), was an importantHumanist theoretician and designer whose book on architectureDe re Aedificatoria was to have lasting effect. An aspect ofRenaissance humanism was an emphasis of the anatomy of nature, in particular the human form, a science first studied by the Ancient Greeks. Humanism made man the measure of things. Alberti perceived the architect as a person with great social responsibilities.[12]
He designed a number of buildings, but unlike Brunelleschi, he did not see himself as a builder in a practical sense and so left the supervision of the work to others. Miraculously, one of his greatest designs, that of theBasilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua, was brought to completion with its character essentially intact. Not so theChurch of San Francesco inRimini, a rebuilding of a Gothic structure, which, like Sant'Andrea, was to have a façade reminiscent of a Romantriumphal arch. This was left sadly incomplete.[12]
Sant'Andrea is an extremely dynamic building both without and within. Its triumphal façade is marked by extreme contrasts. The projection of the order of pilasters that define the architectural elements, but are essentially non-functional, is very shallow. This contrasts with the gaping deeply recessed arch which makes a huge portico before the main door. The size of this arch is in direct contrast to the two low square-topped openings that frame it. The light and shade play dramatically over the surface of the building because of the shallowness of its mouldings and the depth of its porch. In the interior Alberti has dispensed with the traditional nave and aisles. Instead there is a slow and majestic progression of alternating tall arches and low square doorways, repeating the "triumphal arch" motif of the façade.[20]
Two of Alberti's best known buildings are in Florence, thePalazzo Rucellai and atSanta Maria Novella. For the palace, Alberti applied the classical orders of columns to the façade on the three levels, 1446–1451. At Santa Maria Novella he was commissioned to finish the decoration of the façade. He completed the design in 1456 but the work was not finished until 1470.
The lower section of the building had Gothic niches and typical polychrome marble decoration. There was a largeocular window in the end of the nave which had to be taken into account. Alberti simply respected what was already in place, and the Florentine tradition for polychrome that was well established at theBaptistery of San Giovanni, the most revered building in the city. The decoration, being mainly polychrome marble, is mostly very flat in nature, but a sort of order is established by the regular compartments and the circular motifs which repeat the shape of the round window.[9] For the first time, Alberti linked the lower roofs of the aisles to nave using two large scrolls. These were to become a standard Renaissance device for solving the problem of different roof heights and bridge the space between horizontal and vertical surfaces.[21]
In the late 15th century and early 16th century, architects such asBramante,Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzo which were quite different from the structures of ancient times. The style became more decorated and ornamental, statuary, domes andcupolas becoming very evident. The architectural period is known as the "High Renaissance" and coincides with the age ofLeonardo,Michelangelo andRaphael.
Donato Bramante, (1444–1514), was born inUrbino and turned from painting to architecture, finding his first important patronage underLudovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, for whom he produced a number of buildings over 20 years. After the fall ofMilan to the French in 1499, Bramante travelled to Rome where he achieved great success under papal patronage.[12]
Bramante's finest architectural achievement in Milan is his addition of crossing and choir to the abbey church ofSanta Maria delle Grazie (Milan). This is a brick structure, the form of which owes much to the Northern Italian tradition of square domedbaptisteries. The new building is almost centrally planned, except that, because of the site, the chancel extends further than the transept arms. The hemispherical dome, of approximately 20 metres across, rises up hidden inside an octagonaldrum pierced at the upper level with arched classical openings. The whole exterior has delineated details decorated with the localterracotta ornamentation. From 1488 to 1492 he worked forAscanio Sforza onPavia Cathedral, on which he imposed a central plan scheme and built some apses and the crypt, inspired by the thermal baths of the Roman age.[22][23]
In Rome Bramante created what has been described as "a perfect architectural gem",[9] theTempietto in the Cloister ofSan Pietro in Montorio. This small circular temple marks the spot where St Peter was martyred and is thus the most sacred site in Rome. The building adapts the style apparent in the remains of theTemple of Vesta, the most sacred site of Ancient Rome. It is enclosed by and in spatial contrast with the cloister which surrounds it. As approached from the cloister, as in thepicture above, it is seen framed by an arch and columns, the shape of which are echoed in its free-standing form.
Bramante went on to work on theApostolic Palace, where he designed theCortile del Belvedere. In 1506 his design forPope Julius II's rebuilding ofSt. Peter's Basilica was selected, and the foundation stone laid. After Bramante's death and many changes of plan,Michelangelo, as chief architect, reverted to something closer to Bramante's original proposal.[9]
Antonio da Sangallo also submitted a plan for St Peter's and became the chief architect after the death of Raphael, to be succeeded himself by Michelangelo.
His fame does not rest upon his association with St Peter's but in his building of theFarnese Palace, "the grandest palace of this period", started in 1530.[9] The impression of grandness lies in part in its sheer size, (56 m long by 29.5 meters high) and in its lofty location overlooking a broad piazza. Unusually for such a large and luxurious house of the time, it was built principally of stuccoed brick, rather than of stone. Against the smooth pink-washed walls the stone quoins of the corners, the massive rusticated portal and the repetition of finely detailed windows produce an elegant effect. The upper of the three equally sized floors was added by Michelangelo. The travertine for its architectural details came not from a quarry, but from theColosseum.[9]
Raphael (1483–1520), born inUrbino, trained underPerugino inPerugia before moving to Florence, was for a time the chief architect for St. Peter's, working in conjunction with Antonio Sangallo. He also designed a number of buildings, most of which were finished by others. His single most influential work is thePalazzo Pandolfini in Florence with its two stories of strongly articulated windows of a "tabernacle" type, each set around with ordered pilasters, cornice and alternate arched and triangular pediments.[9]
Baldassare Peruzzi, (1481–1536), was an architect born inSiena, but working in Rome, whose work bridges theHigh Renaissance and the Mannerist period. HisVilla Farnesina of 1509 is a very regular monumental cube of two equal stories, the bays being strongly articulated by orders of pilasters. The building is unusual for its frescoed walls.[9]
Peruzzi's most famous work is thePalazzo Massimo alle Colonne in Rome. The unusual features of this building are that its façade curves gently around a curving street. It has in its ground floor a dark centralportico running parallel to the street, but as a semi enclosed space, rather than an open loggia. Above this rise three undifferentiated floors, the upper two with identical small horizontal windows in thin flat frames which contrast strangely with the deep porch, which has served, from the time of its construction, as a refuge to the city's poor.[21]
Giulio Romano (1499–1546), was a pupil of Raphael, assisting him on various works for the Vatican. Romano was also a highly inventive designer, working forFederico II Gonzaga at Mantua on thePalazzo Te (1524–1534), a project which combined his skills as architect, sculptor and painter. In this work, incorporating gardengrottoes and extensive frescoes, he usesillusionistic effects, surprising combinations ofarchitectural form and texture, and the frequent use of features that seem somewhat disproportionate or out of alignment. The total effect is eerie and disturbing. Ilan Rachum cites Romano as"one of the first promoters of Mannerism".[12]
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) was one of the creative giants whose achievements mark the High Renaissance. He excelled in each of the fields of painting, sculpture and architecture, and his achievements brought about significant changes in each area. His architectural fame lies chiefly in two buildings: the interiors of theLaurentian Library and its lobby at the monastery of San Lorenzo in Florence, andSt Peter's Basilica in Rome.
St. Peter's was "the greatest creation of the Renaissance",[9] and a great number of architects contributed their skills to it. But at its completion, there was more of Michelangelo's design than of any other architect, before or after him.
The plan that was accepted at the laying of the foundation stone in 1506 was that byBramante. Various changes in plan occurred in the series of architects that succeeded him, but Michelangelo, when he took over the project in 1546, reverted to Bramante'sGreek-cross plan and redesigned the piers, the walls and the dome, giving the lower weight-bearing members massive proportions and eliminating the encircling aisles from the chancel and identical transept arms.Helen Gardner says: "Michelangelo, with a few strokes of the pen, converted its snowflake complexity into a massive, cohesive unity."[14]
Michelangelo's dome was a masterpiece of design using two masonry shells, one within the other and crowned by a massiveroof lantern supported, as at Florence, on ribs. For the exterior of the building he designed agiant order which defines every external bay, the whole lot being held together by a wide cornice which runs unbroken like a rippling ribbon around the entire building.
There is a wooden model of the dome, showing its outer shell as hemispherical. When Michelangelo died in 1564, the building had reached the height of the drum. The architect who succeeded Michelangelo wasGiacomo della Porta. The dome, as built, has a much steeper projection than the dome of the model. It is generally presumed that it was della Porta who made this change to the design, to lessen the outward thrust. But, in fact it is unknown who it was that made this change, and it is equally possible and a stylistic likelihood that the person who decided upon the more dynamic outline was Michelangelo himself at some time during the years that he supervised the project.[note 8]
Michelangelo was at his most Mannerist in the design of the vestibule of theLaurentian Library, also built by him to house theMedici collection of books at the convent ofSan Lorenzo, Florence, the same San Lorenzo's at whichBrunelleschi had recast church architecture into a Classical mold and established clear formula for the use ofClassical orders and their various components.
Michelangelo takes all Brunelleschi's components and bends them to his will. The Library is upstairs. It is a long low building with an ornate wooden ceiling, a matching floor and crowded with corrals finished by his successors to Michelangelo's design. But it is a light room, the natural lighting streaming through a long row of windows that appear positively crammed between the order of pilasters that march along the wall. The vestibule, on the other hand, is tall, taller than it is wide and is crowded by a large staircase that pours out of the library in whatNikolaus Pevsner refers to as a "flow of lava", and bursts in three directions when it meets the balustrade of the landing. It is an intimidating staircase, made all the more so because the rise of the stairs at the center is steeper than at the two sides, fitting only eight steps into the space of nine.
The space is crowded and it is to be expected that the wall spaces would be divided by pilasters of low projection. But Michelangelo has chosen to use paired columns, which, instead of standing out boldly from the wall, he has sunk deep into recesses within the wall itself. In the Basilica di San Lorenzo nearby, Brunelleschi used little scrolling consolebrackets to break the strongly horizontal line of the course above the arcade. Michelangelo has borrowed Brunelleschi's motifs and stood each pair of sunken columns on a pair of twin console brackets. Pevsner says the "Laurenziana [...] reveals Mannerism in its most sublimearchitectural form".[21][24]
Della Porta spent nearly all his working life in Rome, designing villas, palazzi and churches in the Mannerist style. One of his most famous works is the façade of theChurch of the Gesù, a project that he inherited from his teacherJacopo Barozzi da Vignola. Most characteristics of the original design are maintained, subtly transformed to give more weight to the central section, where della Porta uses, among other motifs, a low triangularpediment overlaid on a segmental one above the main door. The upper storey and its pediment give the impression of compressing the lower one. The center section, like that of Sant'Andrea at Mantua, is based on thetriumphal arch, but has two clear horizontal divisions likeSanta Maria Novella.See Alberti above. The problem of linking the aisles to thenave is solved using Alberti's scrolls, in contrast to Vignola's solution which provided much smaller brackets and four statues to stand above the paired pilasters, visually weighing down the corners of the building. The influence of the design may be seen in Baroque churches throughout Europe.
Andrea Palladio, (1508–80), "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance",[9] was, as a stonemason, introduced to Humanism by the poetGiangiorgio Trissino. His first major architectural commission was the rebuilding of theBasilica Palladiana atVicenza, in theVeneto where he was to work most of his life.[12]
Palladio was to transform the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different perspective on the notion of Classicism. While the architects of Florence and Rome looked to structures like theColosseum and theArch of Constantine to provide formulae, Palladio looked to classical temples with their simpleperistyle form. When he used the triumphal arch motif of a large arched opening with lower square-topped opening on either side, he invariably applied it on a small scale, such as windows, rather than on a large scale as Alberti used it at Sant'Andrea's. This Ancient Roman motif[25] is often referred to as the Palladian Arch.
The best known of Palladio's domestic buildings isVilla Capra, otherwise known as "La Rotonda", a centrally planned house with a domed central hall and four identical façades, each with a temple-like portico like that of thePantheon, Rome.[26] At theVilla Cornaro, the projecting portico of the north façade and recessed loggia of the garden façade are of twoordered stories, the upper forming a balcony.[27]
Like Alberti, della Porta and others, in the designing of a church façade, Palladio was confronted by the problem of visually linking the aisles to the nave while maintaining and defining the structure of the building. Palladio's solution was entirely different from that employed by della Porta. At thechurch of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice he overlays a tall temple, its columns raised on high plinths, over another low wide temple façade, its columns rising from the basements and its narrow lintel and pilasters appearing behind the giant order of the central nave.[9]
Progression from Early Renaissance through to Baroque
In Italy, there appears to be a seamless progression from Early Renaissance architecture through the High Renaissance and Mannerism to the Baroque style. Pevsner comments about the vestibule of the Laurentian Library that it "has often been said that the motifs of the walls show Michelangelo as the father of the Baroque".
While continuity may be the case in Italy, it was not necessarily the case elsewhere. The adoption of the Renaissance style of architecture was slower in some areas than in others, as may be seen in England, for example. Indeed, asPope Julius II was having theOld St. Peter's Basilica demolished to make way for the new,Henry VII of England was adding a glorious new chapel in thePerpendicular Gothic style toWestminster Abbey.
Likewise, the style that was to become known as Baroque evolved in Italy in the early 17th century, at about the time that the first fully Renaissance buildings were constructed at Greenwich and Whitehall in England,[note 9] after a prolonged period of experimentation with Classical motifs applied to localarchitectural forms, or conversely, the adoption of Renaissance structural forms in the broadest sense with an absence of the formulae that governed their use. While the English were just discovering what the rules of Classicism were, the Italians were experimenting with methods of breaking them. In England, following theRestoration of the Monarchy in 1660, the architectural climate changed, and taste moved in the direction of the Baroque. Rather than evolving, as it did in Italy, it arrived fully fledged.
In a similar way, in many parts of Europe that had few purely classical and ordered buildings like Brunelleschi's Santo Spirito and Michelozzo's Medici Riccardi Palace, Baroque architecture appeared almost unheralded, on the heels of a sort of Proto-Renaissance local style.[28] The spread of the Baroque and its replacement of traditional and more conservative Renaissance architecture was particularly apparent in the building of churches as part of theCounter Reformation.[21]
The 16th century saw the economic and political ascendancy ofFrance,Spain andPortugal, then later the rise ofEngland,Poland andRussia and theDutch Republic. The result was that these places began to import the Renaissance style as indicators of their new cultural position. This also meant that it was not until about 1500 and later that signs of Renaissance architectural style began to appear outside Italy.
Books or ornament prints withengraved illustrations demonstrating plans and ornament were very important in spreading Renaissance styles in Northern Europe, with among the most important authors beingAndrouet du Cerceau in France, andHans Vredeman de Vries in the Netherlands, andWendel Dietterlin, author ofArchitectura (1593–94) in Germany.
In Estonia, artistic influences came from Dutch, Swedish and Polish sources.[29] The building of theBrotherhood of the Blackheads in Tallinn with a façade designed byArent Passer, is the only truly Renaissance building in the country that has survived more or less intact.[30] Significantly for these troubled times, the only other examples are purely military buildings, such as theFat Margaret cannon tower, also in Tallinn.[31]
Latvian Renaissance architecture was influenced by Polish-Lithuanian and Dutch style, withMannerism following fromGothic without intermediaries.St. John's Church in the Latvian capital ofRiga is an example of an earlier Gothic church which was reconstructed in 1587–89 by the Dutch architect Gert Freze (Joris Phraeze). The prime example of Renaissance architecture in Latvia is the heavily decoratedHouse of the Blackheads, rebuilt from an earlier Medieval structure into its present Mannerist forms as late as 1619–25 by the architects A. and L. Jansen. It was destroyed during World War II and rebuilt during the 1990s.[32]
The Renaissance style first appeared in theCrown of Bohemia in the 1490s. Bohemia together with its incorporated lands, especiallyMoravia, thus ranked among the areas of theHoly Roman Empire with the earliest known examples of the Renaissance architecture.[35]
The lands of the Bohemian Crown were never part of the ancientRoman Empire, thus they missed their own ancient classical heritage and had to be dependent on the primarily Italian models. As well as in other Central European countries the Gothic style kept its position especially in the church architecture. The traditionalGothic architecture was considered timeless and therefore able to express the sacredness. The Renaissance architecture coexisted with the Gothic style in Bohemia and Moravia until the late 16th century (e. g. the residential part of a palace was built in the modern Renaissance style but its chapel was designed with Gothic elements). The façades of Czech Renaissance buildings were often decorated withsgraffito (figural or ornamental).
During the reign ofRudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor and Bohemian king, the city of Prague became one of the most important European centers of the late Renaissance art (so-calledMannerism). Nevertheless, not many architecturally significant buildings have been preserved from that time.
In the 15th century,Croatia was divided into three states: the northern and central part of Croatia andSlavonia were in union with theKingdom of Hungary, whileDalmatia, with the exception of the independentRepublic of Ragusa, was under the rule of theVenetian Republic. TheCathedral of St James inŠibenik, was begun in 1441 in the Gothic style byGiorgio da Sebenico(Juraj Dalmatinac). Its unusual construction does not use mortar, the stone blocks,pilasters andribs being bonded withjoints andslots in the way that was usual in wooden constructions. In 1477 the work was unfinished, and continued underNiccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino, who respected the mode of construction and the plan of the former architect, but continued the work which includes the upper windows, the vaults and the dome, in the Renaissance style. The combination of a high barrel vault with lower half-barrel vaults over the aisles the gives the façade its distinctivetrefoil shape, the first of this type in the region.[36] The cathedral was listed as aUNESCOWorld Heritage List in 2001.
The first great exponent of classicizing Italian Renaissance architecture in England wasInigo Jones (1573–1652), who had studied architecture in Italy where the influence of Palladio was very strong. Jones returned to England full of enthusiasm for the new movement and immediately began to design such buildings as theQueen's House atGreenwich in 1616 and theBanqueting House, Whitehall three years later. These works, with their clean lines, and symmetry were revolutionary in a country still enamoured with mullion windows, crenellations and turrets.[9][37]
One of the earliest places to be influenced by the Renaissance style of architecture was theKingdom of Hungary. The style appeared following the marriage of KingMatthias Corvinus andBeatrice of Naples in 1476. Many Italian artists, craftsmen andmasons arrived atBuda with the new queen. Important remains of the Early Renaissance summer palace of King Matthias can be found inVisegrád. TheOttoman conquest of Hungary after 1526 cut short the development of Renaissance architecture in the country and destroyed its most famous examples. Today, the only completely preserved work of Hungarian Renaissance architecture is the Bakócz Chapel (commissioned by the Hungarian cardinalTamás Bakócz), now part of theEsztergom Basilica.[38]
As inpainting, Renaissance architecture took some time to reach theHabsburg Netherlands and did not entirely supplant the Gothic elements. An architect directly influenced by the Italian masters wasCornelis Floris de Vriendt, who designedAntwerp City Hall, finished in 1564. The style is sometimes called the Flemish-Italian Renaissance style and is also known as the Floris style.[39] In this style the overall structure was similar to that of late-Gothic buildings, but with larger windows and much florid decoration and detailing in the Renaissance styles. This style became widely influential across Northern Europe, for example inElizabethan architecture, and is part of the wider movement ofNorthern Mannerism.
In the early 17th centuryDutch Republic,Hendrick de Keyser played an important role in developing the "Amsterdam Renaissance" style, which has local characteristics including the prevalence of tall narrow town-houses, thetrapgevel orDutch gable and the employment of decorative triangular pediments over doors and windows in which the apex rises much more steeply than in most other Renaissance architecture, but in keeping with the profile of the gable. Carved stone details are often of low profile, instrapwork resembling leatherwork, a stylistic feature originating in theSchool of Fontainebleau. This feature was exported to England.[9][18]
Courtyard ofWawel Castle exemplifies the first period of Polish Renaissance
Polish Renaissance architecture is divided into three periods:The first period (1500–50) is the so-called "Italian" as most of Renaissance buildings of this time were designed by Italian architects, mainly fromFlorence, includingFrancesco Fiorentino andBartolomeo Berrecci. Renowned architects from Southern Europe became sought-after during the reign ofSigismund I the Old and his Italian-born wife, QueenBona Sforza. Notable examples from this period includeWawel Castle Courtyard andSigismund's Chapel.
In the second period (1550–1600), Renaissance architecture became more common, with the beginnings ofMannerist and under the influence of the Netherlands, particularly in northern Poland andPomerania, but also in parts ofLesser Poland. Buildings of this kind include theCloth Hall inKraków and city halls ofTarnów andSandomierz. The most famous example is the 16th-centuryPoznań Town Hall, designed byGiovanni Battista di Quadro.
In the third period (1600–50), the rising power of sponsoredJesuits andCounter Reformation gave impetus to the development of Mannerist architecture and Baroque. Most notable example of this period isKalwaria Zebrzydowska park,mannerist architectural and park landscape complex and pilgrimage park, which consists Basilica of St. Mary and 42 chapels modelled and named after the places in Jerusalem and Holy Land. This is aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Another great example from this period isKrasiczyn Castle, which is an palazzo in fortezza with a uniquesgraffito wall decorations, whose total area is about 7000 square meters.[40]
PrinceIvan III introduced Renaissance architecture toRussia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of theRussian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architectAristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild theCathedral of the Dormition in theMoscow Kremlin, damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th-centuryAssumption Cathedral in Vladimir as a model, and produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.
In 1485, Ivan III commissioned the building of a royalTerem Palace within the Kremlin, withAloisio da Milano being the architect of the first three floors. Aloisio da Milano, as well as the other Italian architects, also greatly contributed to the construction of theKremlin wallsand towers. The small banqueting hall of theRussian Tsars, called thePalace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians,Marco Ruffo andPietro Solario, and shows a more Italian style.
In 1505, an Italian known in Russia asAleviz Novyi built twelve churches for Ivan III, including theCathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style.
The Renaissance architecture that found its way to Scandinavia was influenced by the Flemish architecture, and included high gables and a castle air as demonstrated in the architecture ofFrederiksborg Palace. Consequently, much of the Neo-Renaissance to be found in the Scandinavian countries is derived from this source.
In Denmark, Renaissance architecture thrived during the reigns ofFrederick II and especiallyChristian IV. Inspired by the French castles of the times, Flemish architects designed masterpieces such asKronborg Castle inHelsingør andFrederiksborg Castle inHillerød. The Frederiksborg Castle (1602–1620) is the largest Renaissance palace in Scandinavia.
Elsewhere in Sweden, withGustav Vasa's seizure of power and the onset of the Protestant reformation, church construction and aristocratic building projects came to a near standstill. During this time period, several magnificent so-called "Vasa castles" appeared. They were erected at strategic locations to control the country as well as to accommodate the travelling royal court.Gripsholm Castle,Kalmar Castle andVadstena Castle are known for their fusion of medieval elements with Renaissance architecture.
The architecture ofNorway was influenced partly by the occurrence of the plague during the Renaissance era. After theBlack Death, monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill. There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway, the most prominent being renovations to the medievalRosenkrantz Tower inBergen,Barony Rosendal inHardanger, and the contemporaryAustrat manor nearTrondheim, and parts ofAkershus Fortress.
There is little evidence of Renaissance influence in Finnish architecture.
In Spain, Renaissance began to be grafted to Gothic forms in the last decades of the 15th century. The new style is calledPlateresque, because of the extremely decorated façade, that brought to the mind the decorative motifs of the intricately detailed work ofsilversmiths, thePlateros. Classical orders and candelabra motifs (a candelieri) combined freely. As decades passed, the Gothic influence disappeared and the research of an orthodox classicism reached high levels. Although Plateresco is a commonly used term to define most of the architectural production of the late 15th and first half of 16th century, some architects acquired a more sober personal style, likeDiego Siloe, andAndrés de Vandelvira inAndalusia, andAlonso de Covarrubias andRodrigo Gil de Hontañón inCastile. This phase of Spanish Renaissance is calledPurism. From the mid-sixteenth century, under such architects asPedro Machuca,Juan Bautista de Toledo andJuan de Herrera there was a closer adherence to the art of ancient Rome, sometimes anticipatingMannerism, examples of which include thepalace of Charles V inGranada andEl Escorial.[9][11][18] ThisHerrerian style orarquitectura herreriana of architecture was developed during the last third of the 16th century under the reign ofPhilip II (1556–1598),[41] and continued in force in the 17th century, but transformed by theBaroque style of the time.
Many styles of Late Renaissance and Mannerist architecture transitioned fairly easily in local styles ofBaroque architecture; in other areas the change was more abrupt. Baroque andNeoclassical architecture dominated the later 17th and the 18th century in most areas, and persisted well into the 19th century in many places and individual buildings.
During the 19th century there was a conscious revival of the style inRenaissance Revival architecture, that paralleled theGothic Revival. Whereas the Gothic style was perceived by architectural theorists[note 10] as being the most appropriate style for Church building, the Renaissance palazzo was a good model for urban secular buildings requiring an appearance of dignity and reliability such as banks, gentlemen's clubs and apartment blocks.[note 11] Buildings that sought to impress, such as thePalais Garnier, were often of a more Mannerist or Baroque style.[note 12] Architects of factories, office blocks and department stores continued to use the Renaissance palazzo form into the 20th century, inMediterranean Revival Style architecture with an Italian Renaissance emphasis.[21][note 13]
Many of the concepts and forms of Renaissance architecture can be traced through subsequent architectural movements—from Renaissance to High-Renaissance, to Mannerism, to Baroque (orRococo), toNeo-Classicism, and toEclecticism. While Renaissance style and motifs were largely purged fromModernism, they have been reasserted in somePostmodern architecture. The influence of Renaissance architecture can still be seen in many of the modern styles and rules of architecture today.
^Some architectural histories e.g. SirBanister Fletcher, include Baroque as a phase of Renaissance architecture. Because of its extent, diversity and deviation from the Classical it is not included here and is the subject of a main article.
^The Italian translates literally to "fourteen-hundred" and coincides with the English "fifteenth century".
^TheEarly Renaissance in architecture is most applicable to developments in Venice, where there was a more fluid development between medieval and Renaissance styles than in Florence.[4]
^Pevsner and Gardener suggest that Michelangelo began with the idea of a pointed dome, as in Florence, then in his old age reverted to the lower silhouette, and that della Porta stuck to Michelangelo's original concept. Mignacca, on the other hand, suggests that the pointed dome was Michelangelo's final, and brilliant, solution to the apparent visual tension within the building.
^Ackerman, James S. The Architecture of Michelangelo. University of Chicago Press, 1986.
^Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien, 1860 (The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860), English translation, by SGC Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878
^John McAndrewVenetian Architecture of the Early Renaissance (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1980).
^Howard Saalman.Filippo Brunelleschi: The Buildings. (London: Zwemmer, 1993).
^Arnaldo Bruschi.Bramante (London: Thames and Hudson, 1977).
^Harald Busch, Bernd Lohse, Hans Weigert,Baukunst der Renaissance in Europa. Von Spätgotik bis zum Manierismus, Frankfurt af Main, 1960 Wilfried Koch,Style w architekturze, Warsaw 1996 Tadeusz Broniewski,Historia architektury dla wszystkich Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, 1990 Mieczysław Gębarowicz,Studia nad dziejami kultury artystycznej późnego renesansu w Polsce, Toruń 1962
^Flexor, Maria Helena Ochi. "Catedral Basílica". In:Igrejas e Conventos da Bahia. Series Roteiros do Patrimônio, vol. II. Brasília: Iphan / Programa Monumenta, 2010, pp. 11-36
^A. Gutiérrez R. (24 May 2017)."Historia".Merida Cathedral Official website (in Spanish).Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved24 September 2019.
Buddensieg, Tilmann. 1976. "Criticism of Ancient Architecture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries." InClassical Influences on European Culture A.D. 1500–1700, 335–348. Edited by R. R. Bolgar. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
Hart, Vaughan, and Peter Hicks, eds. 1998.Paper Palaces: The Rise of the Architectural Treatise in the Renaissance. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
Jokilehto, Jukka. 2017.A History of Architectural Conservation. 2d ed. New York:Routledge.
Koortbojian, Michael. 2011. "Renaissance Spolia and Renaissance Antiquity (One Neighborhood, Three Cases)." InReuse Value: Spolia and Appropriation in Art and Architecture, from Constantine to Sherrie Levine. Edited by Richard Brilliant and Dale Kinney, 149–165. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.
Serlio, Sebastiano. 1996–2001.Sebastiano Serlio on Architecture. 2 vols. Translated by Vaughan Hart and Peter Hicks. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
Smith, Christine. 1992.Architecture in the Culture of Early Humanism: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Eloquence 1400–1470. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
Waters, Michael J. 2012. "A Renaissance Without Order Ornament, Single-Sheet Engravings, and the Mutability of Architectural Prints."Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 71:488–523.
Tafuri, Manfredo. 2006.Interpreting the Renaissance: Princes, Cities, Architects. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Wittkower, Rudolf. 1971.Architectural Principles In the Age of Humanism. New York: Norton.
Yerkes, Carolyn. 2017.Drawing after Architecture: Renaissance Architectural Drawings and their Reception. Venice: Marsilio.
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