Religious syncretism is the blending of religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation of other beliefs into an existing religious tradition.
This can occur for many reasons, where religious traditions exist in proximity to each other, or when a culture is conquered and the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in eradicating older beliefs and practices.
Many religions havesyncretic elements, but adherents often frown upon the application of the label, especially those who belong to "revealed" religions, such asAbrahamic religions, or any system with anexclusivist approach, seeing syncretism as corrupting the original religion.[1] Non-exclusivist systems of belief on the other hand feel more free to incorporate other traditions into their own.
Classical Athens wasexclusive in matters of religion. Some sources assert that theDecree of Diopeithes made the introduction of and belief in foreign gods a criminal offense[2] and allowed only Greeks to worship in Athenian temples and festivals (as foreigners were considered impure). Other sources dispute the existence of the decree.[3]
Syncretism functioned as a feature ofHellenisticAncient Greek religion, although only outside of Greece. Overall, Hellenistic culture in theage that followedAlexander the Great itself showed syncretist features, essentially blendingMesopotamian,Persian,Anatolian,Egyptian, and (eventually)Etruscan–Roman elements within a Hellenic formula. TheEgyptian godAmun was developed into the HellenizedZeus Ammon afterAlexander the Great went into the desert to seek outhis oracle at theSiwa Oasis.[4][5]
TheRomans, identifying themselves as joint heirs to a very similar civilization, identifiedGreek gods with similar figures in theEtruscan-Roman tradition, though usually without copyingcult practices. (For details, seeinterpretatio graeca.) Syncreticgods of the Hellenistic period also found wide favor in Rome. For example,Serapis,Isis, andMithras.Cybele, as worshipped in Rome, essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterraneangoddess. The Romans imported the Greek godDionysus into Rome, where he merged with the Latinmead godLiber, and converted the AnatolianSabazios into the RomanSabazius.
The degree of likeness varied:Jupiter was perhaps a better match withZeus than the rural huntressDiana was for the fearedArtemis.Ares was not homologous toMars. The Romans physically imported the (statue of) Anatolian goddessCybele into Rome from her cult center in AnatolianPessinos in the form of her originalaniconic archaic stone idol; they identified her asMagna Mater and gave her a matronly, explicitly iconic image developed in HellenisticPergamum.
Likewise, when the Romans encounteredCelts andGermanic peoples, they mingled those peoples' gods with their own, creatingSulis Minerva, ApolloSucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In theGermania, the Roman historianTacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers ofHercules andMercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules asThor and Mercury asOdin.
Romans were familiar with the concept of syncretism because, from their earliest times, they had experienced it with, among others, the Greeks. The Romans incorporated Apollo and Hercules, originally Greek deities, into their religion. They did not look at the religious aspects they adopted from other cultures to be different or less meaningful from those that originated as Roman. The early Roman acceptance of other cultures' religions into their own made it easy for them to integrate the newly encountered religions they found due to their expansion.[6]
Gnosticism is identified as an early form of syncretism that challenged the beliefs ofearly Christians.[citation needed] Gnosticdualism posited that only spiritual or invisible things were good, and that material or visible things were evil. Orthodox (mainstream) Christians have always insisted that matter is essentially good because they believe thatGod created all things, both spiritual and material,[7] and said that it was "very good".[8]Simon Magus has been identified as one of the early proponents of Gnosticism.[9]
In the first few centuries after thedeath of Jesus, there were various competing "Jesus movements". The Roman emperors used syncretism to help unite the expanding empire.[10] Social conversion to Christianity happened all over Europe. It became even more effective when missionaries concurred with established cultural traditions and interlaced them into a fundamentally Christian synthesis.[11] Sometimes old pagan gods—or at least their aspects and roles—were transferred to Christian saints, such as whenDemetrius of Thessaloniki inherited the role of patron ofagriculture fromDemeter and theEleusinian Mysteries after the latter's demise in the 4th century.[12]
Syncretism is distinguished fromassimilation, the latter of which refers to the church's ability to "incorporate into herself all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world". This idea was present in the early Church; theSecond Apology of Justin Martyr states: "Whatever things were rightly said among all men, are the property of us Christians".[13] The Church has assimilated many (though not all) of the ideas ofPlato andAristotle.Augustine of Hippo is remembered for assimilating the ideas of Plato, whileThomas Aquinas is known for doing so with the ideas of Aristotle. In his essay on the development of Christian doctrine,[14]John Henry Newman clarified the idea of assimilation.[15]
InMoses and Monotheism,Sigmund Freud made a case forJudaism arising out of the pre-existingmonotheism that was briefly imposed uponEgypt during the rule ofAkhenaten.[16] TheCode of Hammurabi is also cited as a likely starting point for the JewishTen Commandments. Somescholars hold that Judaism refined its concept of monotheism and adopted features such as itseschatology,angelology, anddemonology through contacts withZoroastrianism. However, some scholars dispute that claim.[17][18][19]
In spite of the Jewishhalakhic prohibitions againstpolytheism,idolatry, and associated practices (Avodah Zarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up:Messianic Judaism,Jewish Buddhism,Nazarenism, andJudeo-Paganism. SeveralJewish Messiah claimants (such asJacob Frank) and theSabbateans came to mixKabbalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam.
The Danish orientalistArthur Christensen, in his bookIran During The Sassanid Era, mentioned that the sources dating back to the era of theSasanian state inancient Persian that refer to the Zoroastrian doctrine do not match the sources that appeared after the collapse of the state, such as the Pahlavi source and others. The reason is that, because of the fall of the Sasanian state, the Zoroastrian clerics tried to save their religion from extinction by modifying it to resemble the religion of Muslims to retain followers in the Zoroastrian religion.[20]
Gherardo Gnoli comments that the Islamic conquest of Persia caused a huge impact on the Zoroastrian doctrine:[21]
"After the Islamic conquest ofPersia and the migration of many Zoroastrians to India and after being exposed to Islamic and Christian propaganda, the Zoroastrians, especially the Parsis in India, went so far as to deny dualism and consider themselves completely monotheists. After several transformations and developments, one of the distinctive features of the Zoroastrian religion gradually faded away and almost disappeared from modern Zoroastrianism."
Maneckji Nusserwanji Dhalla described the doctrine of theGayomarthians sect as another attempt to mitigate the dualism that has always been the essence of Zoroastrianism. This was due to the Prophet Muhammad’s emphasis on monotheism and the Muslims’ mockery of the doctrine of worshipping two gods, which made the Zoroastrians view dualism as a defect, so they added monotheism, which led to the Zoroastrians’ division into sects and he mentions examples of the Zoroastrian attempt to establish a monotheistic belief by diminishing the importance of Ahriman, including that Ahura Mazda and Ahriman were created from time, or that Ahura Mazda himself allowed the existence of evil, or that Ahriman was a corrupt angel who rebelled against Ahura Mazda. Then he mentions the name of a Persian book from the15th century in which it is written that the Magi (Zoroastrians) believe that Allah and Iblis are brothers.[22]
The Zoroastrians also combined the characters in Zoroastrianism with Islam, as Zoroaster was considered Abraham and Jamshid is another name for Solomon.[23]
TheIslamic mystical tradition known asSufism appears somewhat syncretic in nature in itsorigins, but this is rejected by many other modern scholars.[24]
MainstreamTasawwuf does not present itself as a separate set of beliefs from the mainstreamSunni tradition; well-established traditions likeNaqshbandi,Qadiri,Shadhili, and most others have always been part and parcel of normative Islamic life. During the Sufi presence in Bengal, Muslim–Tantric syncretism was a general trend, andNobibongšo by Syed Sultan is an example of it. The book tells the lineage of the prophets of Islam. Apart from Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, the poet also describes Dharmic figures such as Brahma, Vishnu, Rama, and Krishna.
TheBarghawata kingdom ofMorocco followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with elements ofSunni,Shi'ite andKharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their ownQur'an in theBerber language comprising 80 surahs under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynastySalih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the finalMahdi of Islamic tradition, and thatIsa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.[citation needed]
TheDruze, during the development of their religion, integrated elements ofIsmailiIslam withGnosticism andPlatonism. TheDruze faith also incorporates some elements ofChristianity.[25] Due to theChristian influence on Druze faith, twoChristian saints become theDruze's favorite venerated figures:Saint George and SaintElijah.[26] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery:Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests ofBaal and won over them.[26] In both cases, the explanations provided by Christians are that Druzes were attracted towarrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[26]
Satpanth is considered a syncretism of Ismaili Islam and Hinduism.
 | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs inEast Asian societies as it was compatible with local religions. Notable syncretization of Buddhism with local beliefs includes theThree Teachings, or Triple Religion, that harmonizesMahayana Buddhism withConfucian philosophy and elements ofTaoism, andShinbutsu-shūgō, which is a syncretism ofShinto and Buddhism.[27] The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprise the majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditions includingConfucianism, theChinese folk religion,Taoism,Shinto,Korean shamanism, andVietnamese folk religion.[28][29][30][31][32] Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named Jimon Ogasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.[33]
Hinduism,Buddhism,Jainism, andZoroastrianism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating elements of various religious traditions.[citation needed] One example of this is theYoga Vasistha.[34]
Akram Vigyan Movement established byDada Bhagwan is considered to be a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu syncretistic movement.[35]
TheMughal emperorAkbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propoundedDin-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of his empire's religions.Allopanishad is an example there.Satpanth is considered a syncretism of Ismaili Islam and Hinduism.
Meivazhi is a syncretic monotheistic minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its teachings focus on spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness of Essence message of all the previous major scriptures—particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism, and Christianity—allowing membership regardless of creed. Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people from 69 different castes of different religions united as one family of the Meivazhi religion.
In China, most of the population follows syncretistic religions combiningMahayana Buddhism,Taoism, and elements ofConfucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85% adhere toChinese traditional religion, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist simultaneously. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities.
Likewise, in Southeast Asia, the local variants of Buddhism have been adapted to accommodate folk beliefs, such as the veneration ofnats in Myanmar andphi in Thailand. Tibetan Buddhism is also syncretic in adopting practices from the earlierBön religion.[36] The various Indianised cultures of Southeast Asia also incorporated Hinduism with local beliefs and folklore, such as the veneration ofDewi Sri in Java.
At least hundreds of thousands of people follow religions that syncretizeChinese folk religion andChristianity, while others follow similar belief structures that incorporateIslamic theology instead[37] and have precedent in some 19th- and 20th-centuryMuslim populations in China.[38]
The traditionalMun faith of theLepcha people predates their seventh-century conversion toLamaism. Since that time, the Lepcha have practiced it together with Buddhism. Since the arrival ofChristian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that faith. The traditional religion permits the incorporation ofBuddha andJesus as deities, depending on household beliefs.[39][40][41]
One can contrast Christian syncretism withcontextualization orinculturation, the practice of making Christianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a change in the styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building styles into churches in other parts of the world, in a contextualization approach, they would build churches, sing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. SomeJesuit missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach Christianity, as did the Portuguese in China, the practice of which was opposed by theDominicans, leading to theChinese rites controversy.
Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split intoeastern andwestern rites during theGreat Schism. It became involved, however, with the rifts of theProtestant Reformation, withDesiderius Erasmus's readings of Plutarch. Even earlier, syncretism was a fundamental aspect of the efforts of Neoplatonists such asMarsilio Ficino to reform the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.[42] In 1615,David Pareus ofHeidelberg urged Christians to a "pious syncretism"[citation needed] in opposing theAntichrist, but few 17th-century Protestants discussed the compromises that might effect a reconciliation with the Catholic Church:Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche, andAbraham Calovius (1612–85) opposed theLutheranGeorg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586–1656) of theUniversity of Helmstedt for his "syncretism".[43] (See:Syncretistic controversy.)
Pope Paul VI included a warning against syncretism in hisencyclical letter of 1964,Ecclesiam Suam:
Irenism and syncretism [are] ultimately nothing more than skepticism about the power and content of the Word of God which we desire to preach.[44]
Catholicism in Central and South America has been integrated with a number of elements derived from the cultures of theIndigenous peoples of the Americas and enslaved Africans in those areas (see theCaribbean andmodern sections). The Catholic Church allows some symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief systems, so long as they are remade to conform (rather than conflict) with a Christian worldview; syncretism of other religions with the Catholic faith, such asVoudun orSantería, is expressly condemned. The image ofOur Lady of Guadalupe and the subsequentdevotion to her are seen as assimilating some elements of nativeMexican culture into Christianity.[45]Santa Muerte, a female deity of death, has also emerged as the combination of the indigenous goddessMictecacihuatl and the Lady of Guadalupe. As of 2012, Santa Muerte is worshipped by approximately 5% of the Mexican population, and also has a following in the United States and parts of Central America.[46]
Some Andean areas, such as inPeru, have a strong influence ofInca-originatedQuechua culture into Catholicism. This often results in Catholic holy days and festivities featuring Quechua dances or figures, such as theAssumption of Mary celebration inChinchaypujio, or the fertility celebrations forPachamama in the mostly CatholicCallalli.
TheLacandon people of Central America acknowledge Äkyantho', the god of foreigners. He has a son named Hesuklistos (Jesus Christ) who is supposed to be the god of the foreigners. They recognize that Hesuklistos is a god but do not feel he is worthy of worship as he is a minor god.[47]
TheLutheran Church–Missouri Synod experienced controversy for disciplining pastors forunionism and syncretism when they participated in multi-faith services in response to the9/11 attacks and to theshootings at Newtown, Connecticut, on the grounds that joint worship with other Christian denominations or other religious faiths implied that differences between religions are not important.[48]
In theLatter Day Saint movement, doctrine from previousdispensations as recorded in theLDS canon are considered official, though it is accepted that ancient teachings can be warped, misunderstood, or lost as a result ofapostasy.[49] While it does not officially recognize doctrine from other religions, it is believed that truth in other sources can be identified viapersonal revelation.[50]
Catholicism in South Korea has been syncretized with traditionalMahayana Buddhist andConfucian customs that form an integral part of traditional Korean culture. As a result, South Korean Catholics continue to practice a modified form ofancestral rites and observe many Buddhist and Confucian customs and philosophies.[51][52] In Asia the revolutionary movements ofTaiping (19th-century China) andGod's Army (Karen in the 1990s) blended Christianity with traditional beliefs.Chinese Independent Churches, with membership up to eighty million,[53] incorporate elements of Protestantism andChinese folk religion.[54]
An Islamic and Hindu-Buddhist-Animist Syncretist movement in Indonesia known asAbangan was politically and socially active for a while.[55] In the PhilippinesFolk Catholicism blends religious and magical elements from the precolonial Philippine nations which were practicing eitherBuddhism,Hinduism,Animism,Islam or other religions; together with Hispano-American Roman Catholicism.[56] An example of this is theOur Lady of Guidance of the Philippines, which was an icon of a NativeHindu-Buddhist Diwata but is treated as an image of the Virgin Mary.
Khotons follow a syncretic form ofIslam that incorporates Buddhist and traditional elements (likeTengrism).[57]
Xueta Christianity is asyncretic religion on the island ofMallorca,Spain, followed by theXueta people, who are descendants of persecutedJews who wereconverts to Christianity.[58] Traditionally, The church of Saint Eulalia and the church of Montesión (Mount Zion) inPalma de Mallorca have been used by the families of Jewish converts (Xuetas), and both are the centers of Xueta religious ritual life.[59][60][61][62] The Palma's Mont Zion Church was once the mainsynagogue ofPalma de Mallorca.[63] Is estimated that there are roughly 20,000Chuetas living on the island ofMallorca today, and they practiced strictendogamy by marrying only within their own group.[59]
Census reports taken inPunjab Province during the colonial era (British India) noted and documented various practices highlighting religious syncretism amongPunjabi Muslims,Punjabi Hindus, andMeo Muslims.
"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions ofTazias, inMuharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment ofSabils (shelters where water andsharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like theChiraghan fair ofShalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."[64]: 174
"Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy ofVarnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... TheShamsis are believers inShah Shamas Tabrez ofMultan, and follow theImam, for the time being, of theIsmailia sect ofShias... they belong mostly to theSunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."[64]: 130
"The Meos (Muhammadans) of the eastern Punjab still participate in the observance of theHoli andDiwali festivals. On the latter occasion they paint the horns, hoofs, etc., of their bullocks and join in the general rejoicings".[64]: 174
— Excerpts from theCensus of India (Punjab Province), 1911 AD
Similar to that of Punjab, census reports conducted in British India highlighted syncretic practices among Bengali Hindus and Muslims.[65]
"That both were originally of the same race seems sufficiently clear, not only from comparisons to physical characteristics, but from the similarity of their language, manners and customs. The Bengali Musalman is still in many respects aHindu. Caste distinction, one of the main objects of which would seem to be to prescribe the limits of the jus connubii, are to a certain extent as prevalent and as fully recognised among the Mohammedans of Bengal, as among Hindus. As Buchanan pointed out sixty years ago, they not unfrequently meet at the same shrine, both invoking the same object of worship though perhaps under different names. Instead of commending a letter "In the name of God" (which is the orthodox fashion), the Bengali Musalman will superscribe the name of some Hindu deity. He speaks the same language, and uses precisely the same nomenclature and the same expressions of thought as his Hindu neighbor. Their very names are identical, the prefix of Shaikh alone distinguishing the convert toIslam."
— Excerpts from "The Census ofBengal", 1874 AD, Page 87
In theSundarbans (spread across Indian state ofWest Bengal andBangladesh), it is noted thatBonbibi, a guardian spirit of the forests is venerated by Hindus and Muslim residents alike. In most of the shrines of Banbibi in the Sundarbans, Banbibi is most commonly worshipped along with her brother Shah Jangali and Dakkhin Rai.[66]
Bauls are a group of mynstric minstrels who put emphasis on their mystical elements with the tradition of music. Baul tradition is essentially an amalgamation ofVaishnavism andSufism.[67] Baul has had a considerable effect onBengali culture. Baul traditions are included in the list ofMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[68]
Being a religious minority in the region for centuries, colonial officials found that indigenous Baloch Hindus developed a form of religious syncretism that incorporated many aspects of Islam into their cultures and traditions, greatly differing from the forms of orthodoxHinduism practiced in other parts of the subcontinent. Furthermore, caste and family ancestry was often difficult to ascertain, as Hindus indigenous to theBalochistan region mainly solely identified as a member of their respectiveBaloch tribe, typically unknowing of their caste background.
"Proverbially elastic though the term is,Hinduism is stretched almost to breaking point inBaluchistan. It is not merely that the Hinduism of the domiciled Hindu families widely different from the Hinduism they see practised among the alien immigrants; there is precious little in their religion that would pass for Hinduism in more enlightened parts of India. It almost looks as if the singular freedom from persecution which the old Hindu families have always enjoyed at the hands of their Musalman over-lords had given Islam greater scope to impart its subtle influence to their inward beliefs and outward practices. Knowing no sacred books but theSikh scriptures, and withpriests (Brahmans though they may be) as ignorant of theShastras as themselves, these benighted Hindus have allowed nearly all theirrites and ceremonies to become coloured with an Islamic tinge. They reverently resort toMuhammadan shrines; they invoke Muhammadan saints; in times of trouble they are glad of the help of charm mongeringmullahs. It is not uncommon to find them observingMuhammadan fasts, or participating in theMuharram and otherMuhammadan festivals."[69]: 57–58
"The Hindus ofKalat town — undoubtedly among the oldest in the community — claim to be offshoots of the mysterious Sewa dynasty that ruled in Kalat centuries before theBrahui Confederacy took shape. But though theBhatia ofLas Bela punctiliously refer their advent to the year 708 A.D., andthe Hindus of Lahri tell in all good faith of their journeyings from Aleppo with Chakar the Rind, the early history of these old Hindu families is hopelessly befogged. Everything, however, seems to point to the westernPanjab andSind as the countries from which most of them came, though isolated families inNushki may have immigrated by way ofAfghanistan, and a few others may have wandered in from the far corners ofIndia. Originally they may have been as diverse as the villages from which they came and the dates of their coming. Today the old Hindu families form a more or less homogeneous community. In particular customs no doubt they vary considerably; but common environment has set its common mark on them all. And it is in the effect of an alien environment on Hindus andHindu caste that the main interest in these old trading families of Baluchistan is centred."[69]: 175
"Except inQuetta, where the Hindu community has become so overgrown that conditions are abnormal, neither caste nor sub-caste enters into their composition: there is nothing incongruous or unusual in aPanchayat subscribing impartially to aSikhDharamsala and to the worship of aDevi or of Darya Pir; or in a Panchayat (like that ofChuharkot inBarkhan) which is composed almost wholly ofAroras having aBrahman as its president. In other words, a Panchayat is a Panchayat not of caste-members but of the whole body of Hindus in a village community. It is indeed almost always sheer waste of time to question a member of one of these old Hindu families regarding his caste. Brahman he knows and Musalman he knows; and it is enough for him that he is neither the one nor the other, but a Hindu pure and simple. Most of the families are undoubtedly Arora; some few are very possiblyKhatri; theBhatia ofLas Bela are probablyRajput. But these are distinctions too nice for a local Hindu; it is more than possible that he may never have heard the terms before. Nevertheless, though his mind may be a blank as to the name of his caste, he can sometimes give the name of his sub-caste—possibly a hoary name likeAhuja, possibly a newly coined name like Ramzai or Panjazai, modelled on the name of a tribal section. But it is merely a matter of names after all. The Ramzai and the Panjazai and the Ahuja may have each some cherished peculiarities of their own. But such peculiarities strike no discord between them. The old Hindu families are a brotherhood of equals; among themselves they know no distinctions valid enough to influence the intercourse of everyday life."[69]: 176
— Excerpts from theCensus of India, 1911 AD
In a similar manner to theBaloch Hindus to the south, Hindus belonging to the various castes and tribes who were indigenous to the frontier regions had considerable Islamic influence, owing to their status as a religious minority in the region for centuries, and thus formed religious syncretism that incorporated aspects from both faiths into their cultures and traditions.[70][71] Furthermore, caste differentiation amongst the Hindus of the region was often greatly diminished, in contrast with the Hindus of regions further to the east in theGangetic plain such aseastern Punjab or theUnited Provinces.[70][71]
"The names returned as those ofHindu sects are very numerous amounting in all to 359 different entries. Many of those arecaste andtribes such asAgarwal,Arora,Brahman,Bhat,Bhatiara,Chamar,Chuhra,Dhobi,Dogra,Gorkha,Jat, Meo and the like. Some indicate occupations of occupational castes as for instance,Zamindar,Mahajan,Bhishti,Mallah,Nai andHajjam. A good many more are clan or family names likeKapoor,Sarsut,Muhial,Utradi andJanjua."[70]: 75
"Hinduism, as it exists in theNorth-West Frontier Province, is but a pale reflection of the system which flourishes in theUnited Provinces and other areas to the east. Even of theDerajat, where, as we have seen, the Hindu population is proportionately most numerous, the writer of theDera Ismail KhanGazetteer notes, "the Hindus of this district are less particular in the matter of caste prejudices and observances than down country Hindus. Most of them will drink water that has been carried in Mussaks (skins for carrying water) or out oflotas detached from a working well. They habitually ride ondonkeys and do a multitude of other things which anorthodox Hindu would shrink from. Allidolatrous observances are kept very much in the background. Except a few small images (thakurs) kept in theirmandirs they have noidols at all. Nor is it their habit to take theirgods about inprocession. No one, in fact, sees anything of their worship. They burn their dead, and throw the ashes into the Indus. They always keep a few of the bones, and take them, when the opportunity offers, to theGanges... There are a good manydharamsalas,mandirs, and dawaras at Dera Ismail Khan and in the cis-Indus tehsils"."[70]: 93
"The marriage customs of theHindus have been influenced byIslam, notably in regard to the age ofmarriage... Hindu rules regardingcommensality between differentcastes have been relaxed... any distinct caste organization is virtually non-existent in rural areas. Outside the towns Hindus still live in a condition of dependance on theirMohammadan overlords. TheArora, theKhatri, or theBhatia shop-keeper in a village is a hamsaya of the proprietors of the land; that is to say, he lives rent free in a house which does not belong to him, and in return for this, and for being allowed to reside unmolested in the village, has to render certain services to his protectors."[70]: 93–94
— Excerpts from theCensus of India (North-West Frontier Province), 1911 AD
Similarly to other revealed religions, Sikhi believers considerSikhism to be an independent religion and reject being viewed as a syncretic religion that is the result of combining other religious traditions.Nevertheless, in a manner reminiscent of the latter-dayClash of Civilizations thesis, the Sikh religion emerged within the geography of clashing peripheral intersections between the social, political, and civilisational influences of Islam, Hindu, and shades of Buddhism, acrossPunjab and adjacent territories. The intersecting dynamics were such that the revealed synthesis ofSikh scripture and identity developed in mutualdialectic (syncretic) relationship with the diverse political and religious influences that were extant across the localities of the Sikh birthland.
TheBaháʼís followBahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor toMuhammad,Jesus,Moses,Buddha,Zoroaster,Krishna andAbraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouraged some to regard the Baháʼí religion as a syncretic faith. However in their 1997 and 2000 publications, Stockman and Smith respectively observed that Baháʼís and theBaháʼí literature explicitly reject this view. Stockman and Smith indicated that Baháʼís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related, revelation from God and that its relationship to earlierdispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. Stockman and Smith regarded the beliefs held in common as evidence of truth,progressively revealed by God throughout human history, and culminating in (at the time of Stockman and Smith's writing) the Baháʼí revelation. Stockman and Smith identified that Baháʼís have their ownsacred scripture, interpretations, laws, and practices, which Stockman and Smith observed that, for Baháʼís, supersede those of other faiths at the time of recording their observations in 1997 and 2000.[72][73]
Nevertheless, the Bahá'í Faith's explicit emphasis on nurturing or synthesising the general development ofunity in diversity across the world is intended to have a generative influence on the syncretic and synthetic emergence ofintercultural,pluricultural, andmulticultural paradigms in religion and society.
The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term "Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of race.) The shared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of EuropeanImperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and Great Britain) and the importation of Africanslaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean.
TheRastafari movement, founded inJamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from theBible (specificallyProtestantism),Marcus Garvey'sPan-Africanism movement, a text from the European grimoire tradition, theSixth and Seventh Books of Moses,Hinduism, andCaribbean culture.
Another highly syncretic religion of the area,vodou, combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, andChristian (especiallyRoman Catholic) beliefs.
Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include theAfrican diasporic religionsCandomblé,Vodou andSantería, which analogize variousYorùbá and otherAfrican deities to theRoman Catholic saints. Some sects of Candomblé have also incorporatedNative American deities, andUmbanda combined African deities withKardecistspiritualism.
Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by someAfrican American communities in theSouthern United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America includeLouisiana Voodoo as well asPennsylvania DutchPow-wow, in which practitioners invoke power through theChristian God.
AHindu tradition can be found in the Caribbean, particularly among theIndo-Caribbean Tamil diaspora, that is known asCaribbean Shaktism. It has its origins in theMariamman cults ofTamil Nadu, and was brought to the Caribbean via theGirmityas. Later in the Caribbean, it started to be syncretized withVedic Hinduism due to the contact between North Indian Girmityas and Tamil Girmityas. Later on in their arrival, the practice was syncretized/influenced byRoman Catholicism to varying degrees. InGuyana, the syncretic Hindu-Dravidian practice was maintained with minimal Catholic syncretism, while inTrinidad and Tobago, somemandirs house statues ofSaints and Catholic figures such asJesus and theVirgin Mary. InMartinique, a unique practice known as Maldevidan Spiritism developed among the Tamil community in the North coast which was fully syncretic, where Hindu and Tamil deities were syncretized with saints.
Omnism is the belief in allreligions with their gods.[74]
Many historicalNative American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence, like theNative American Church, that teaches a combination of traditionalNative American beliefs and Christianity, with sacramental use of theentheogenpeyote.[75] Further examples in North America are theGhost Dance, and the religion ofHandsome Lake.
Santo Daime is a syncretic religion founded in Brazil that incorporates elements of several religious or spiritual traditions includingFolk Catholicism,Kardecist Spiritism, Africananimism, andindigenous South Americanshamanism, includingvegetalismo.
Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots toUniversalist andUnitarianChristian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as "Christian".
TheTheosophical Society professes to go beyond being a syncretic movement that combines deities into an elaborateSpiritual Hierarchy, and assembles evidence that points to an underlying (or occult) reality of Being that is universal and interconnected, common to all spirit-matter dualities. It is maintained that this is the source of religious belief, each religion simply casting that one reality through the prism of that particular time and in a way that is meaningful to their circumstances.
Universal Sufism seeks theunity of all people andreligions. Universal Sufis strive to "realize and spread the knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be rooted out."[76]
.jpg)
In Vietnam,Caodaism blends elements ofBuddhism,Catholicism, andTaoism.
SeveralJapanese new religions, such asKonkokyo andSeicho-No-Ie, are syncretistic.
TheNigerian religionChrislam combines Pentecostal Christianity and Islamic doctrines.[77] NigerianYoruba people, which amount to almost fifty million, combine mainly Protestant Christianity and Islamic practices.[78][79]
African Initiated Churches demonstrate an integration ofProtestant andtraditional African religion.[80] Upper estimates of membership in African Initiated Churches reach up to a few hundred million.[81] In West-Central Africa, modernBwiti incorporates animism,ancestor worship, ritual use ofiboga, and Christianity into a syncretistic belief system.[82]
Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, includingHermeticism, EasternMysticism,Yoga, 19th centurylibertarian philosophies (i.e.Nietzsche),occultism, and theKabbalah, as well as ancientEgyptian andGreek religion.
Examples of strongly syncretisticRomantic and modern movements with some religious elements includemysticism,occultism,Theosophical Society, modernastrology,Neopaganism, and theNew Age movement.
Many of India's estimated fifty million Pentecostals[83] have syncretic blends withIndian religions.[84] InRéunion, someMalbars practice at same time Hinduism and Christianity. but separately, not mixed (this is called "dual religious practice" in French "double pratique religieuse") but it's not considered as syncretism
TheUnification Church, founded by religious leaderSun Myung Moon inSouth Korea in 1954, has teachings based on theBible, but includes new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates East Asian traditions.[85][86]
The Xueta had their own church—St Eulalia's—in their barrio, with a Xueta priest, and their own cofraternity (the Cross of Calvary) to march in the Holy Week procession.
