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Religious conversion is the adoption of a set of beliefs identified with one particularreligious denomination to the exclusion of others. Thus "religious conversion" would describe the abandoning of adherence to one denomination and affiliating with another. This might be from one to another denomination within the same religion, for example, fromProtestant Christianity toRoman Catholicism or fromShi'a Islam toSunni Islam.[1] In some cases, religious conversion "marks a transformation of religious identity and is symbolized by special rituals".[2]
People convert to a different religion for various reasons, including active conversion by free choice due to a change in beliefs,[3]secondary conversion,deathbed conversion, conversion for convenience,marital conversion, andforced conversion. Religious conversion can also be driven by practical considerations. Historically, people have converted to evade taxes, to escape military service or to gain political representation.[4]
Proselytism is the act of attempting to convert by persuasion another individual from a different religion or belief system.Apostate is a term used by members of a religion or denomination to refer to someone who has left that religion or denomination.
The religions of the world are divided into two groups: those that actively seek new followers (missionary religions) and those that do not (non-missionary religions). This classification dates back to a lecture given byMax Müller in 1873,[5] and is based on whether or not a religion seeks to gain new converts. The three main religions classified as missionary religions areBuddhism,Christianity, andIslam, while the non-missionary religions includeJudaism,Zoroastrianism, andHinduism. Other religions, such as Primal Religions,Confucianism, andTaoism, may also be considered non-missionary religions.[6]
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In sharing their faith with others, Baháʼís are cautioned to "obtain a hearing" – meaning to make sure the person they are proposing to teach is open to hearing what they have to say. "Baháʼí pioneers", rather than attempting to supplant the cultural underpinnings of the people in their adopted communities, are encouraged to integrate into the society and apply Baháʼí principles in living and working with their neighbors.
Baháʼís recognize the divine origins of all revealed religion, and believe that these religions occurred sequentially as part of a divine plan (seeProgressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding and fulfilling that of its predecessors. Baháʼís regard their own faith as the most recent (but not the last), and believe its teachings – which are centered around the principle of the oneness of humanity – are most suited to meeting the needs of a global community.
In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a card stating a declaration of belief. This includes acknowledgement ofBahá'u'llah – the Founder of the Faith – as the Messenger of God for this age, awareness and acceptance of his teachings, and intention to be obedient to the institutions and laws he established.
Conversion to the Baháʼí Faith carries with it an explicit belief in the common foundation of all revealed religion, a commitment to the unity of mankind, and active service to the community at large, especially in areas that will foster unity and concord. Since the Baháʼí Faith has no clergy, converts are encouraged to be active in all aspects of community life. Even a recent convert may be elected to serve on a localSpiritual Assembly – the guiding Baháʼí institution at the community level.[7][8]
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Within Christianity conversion refers variously to three different phenomena: a person becoming Christian who was previously not Christian; a Christian moving from one Christian denomination to another; a particular spiritual development, sometimes called the "second conversion", or "the conversion of the baptised".[9]
Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person to some form of Christianity. Some Christian sects require full conversion for new members regardless of any history in other Christian sects, or from certain other sects. The exact requirements vary between different churches anddenominations.Baptism is traditionally seen as a sacrament of admission to Christianity.[10] Christian baptism has some parallels with Jewish immersion bymikvah.
In theNew Testament,Jesus commanded his disciples in theGreat Commission to "go and make disciples of all nations".[11]Evangelization – sharing the Gospel message or "Good News" in deed and word, is an expectation of Christians.[12]
Conversions to Christianity have been widespread. Even Christian communities not known for proselytization, such as theArmenian Apostolic Church, are known to have accepted converts amongMuslims,Yazidis, andJews in the nineteenth century.[13]
While Calvinism ismonergistic,[14] like Lutherism,[15] its monergism is through the inner calling of the Holy Spirit, which isirresistible according to the tradition. Lutherism, on the other hand, is monergistic through themeans of grace, and holds the Word to beresistible. The Arminian view on salvation, unlike the other two, issynergistic,[16] and considers salvation resistible due to the common grace of free will.
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Much of the theology of Latter Day Saint baptism was established during the earlyLatter Day Saint movement founded byJoseph Smith, Jr. According to this theology, baptism must be byimmersion, for the remission ofsins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. Mormon baptism does not purport to remit any sins other than personal ones, as adherents do not believe inoriginal sin.[17] Latter Day Saints baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability" which is defined as the age of eight years.[18] The theology thus rejectsinfant baptism.[19]
In addition, Latter Day Saint theology requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God withpriesthood authority.[20] Because the churches of the Latter Day Saint movement operate under a lay priesthood, children raised in a Mormon family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office ofpriest, which is conferred upon worthy male members at least 16 years old in the LDS Church.[21]
Baptism is seen as symbolic both ofJesus' death, burial andresurrection[22] and is also symbolic of the baptized individual putting off of the natural or sinful man and becoming spiritually reborn as a disciple of Jesus.[citation needed]
Membership into a Latter Day Saint church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. Latter Day Saint churches do not recognize baptisms of other faiths as valid because they believe baptisms must be performed under the church's unique authority. Thus, all who come into one of the Latter Day Saint faiths as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith.
When performing a Baptism, Latter Day Saints say the following prayer before performing the ordinance:
Having been commissioned of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.[23]
Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in abaptistry, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two members of the church witness the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly.[24]
Following baptism,Latter Day Saints receive theGift of the Holy Ghost by thelaying on of hands of aMelchizedek Priesthood holder.[24]
Latter Day Saints hold that one may bebaptized after death through the vicarious act of a living individual. Members ofThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with a valid temple recommend (beginning in the year they turn twelve, and after being ordained to the Aaronic Priesthood for men and boys) have the opportunity to practice baptism for the dead as a missionary ritual. However, individuals for whom such baptisms are performed are not counted in figures regarding church membership statistics, such as total membership in the church, or the number of convert baptisms in a given year. Other churches of the Latter Day Saint movement also perform baptisms for the dead. This doctrine, in combination with others regarding the time between an individual's death and resurrection, also explains what happens to the righteous non-believer and the unevangelized by providing a post-mortem means of repentance and salvation.
Converting toIslam requires one to declare theshahādah, the Muslim profession of faith ("There is no deity worthy of worship butAllah(Arabic word for the God); andMuhammad is themessenger of Allah").[25] According toClinton Bennett, British–American scholar ofReligious studies, one's declaration of the Muslim profession of faith does not imply faith in God alone, since the conversion to Islam includes other distinct Islamic beliefs as well as part of theMuslim creed (ʿaqīdah):[25]
Technically, theShahadah (first pillar) is the only obligatory statement offaith in Islam; however, over time a list of six items evolved, the essentials of faith (Iman Mufassal), namely: belief in God, in God's angels, scriptures, messengers, day of judgment, and God's divine decree (Al-Qadr).[25]
In the Islamic religion, it is believed thateveryone is Muslim at birth.[26] Due to this, those who convert are typically referred to as reverts. In Islam, the practice ofIslamic circumcision is considered asunnah custom, not a requirement for conversion and there is a valid difference of opinion on whether it isfard (obligatory) or not.[26][27][28] The majority ofclerical opinions holds that circumcision is not required upon entering the Muslim faith.[26][27][28] In theSunnībranch of Islam, theShāfiʿī andḤanbalī schools regard male circumcision obligatory for Muslims, while theMālikī andḤanafī schools regard it as non-binding and only a recommendation.[26][27][28]
Conversion to Judaism is the religious conversion ofnon-Jews to becomemembers of the Jewish religion and Jewish ethnoreligious community.[29] The procedure and requirements for conversion depend on the sponsoringdenomination. A conversion in accordance with the process of a denomination is not a guarantee of recognition by another denomination.[29] A formal conversion is also sometimes undertaken by individuals whose Jewish ancestry is questioned, even if they were raised Jewish, but may not actually beconsidered Jews according totraditional Jewish law.[30]
As late as the 6th century, the EasternRoman empire andCaliph Umar ibn Khattab were issuing decrees against conversion toJudaism, implying that this was still occurring.[31]
There are no rituals or dogmas, nor any sort of procedures in conversion toSpiritism. The doctrine is first considered as science, then philosophy and lastly as a religion.Allan Kardec'scodification of Spiritism occurred between the years 1857 and 1868. Currently there are 25 to 60 million people[specify][citation needed] studying Spiritism in various countries, mainly in Brazil, through itsessential books, which includeThe Spirits Book,The Book on Mediums,The Gospel According to Spiritism,Heaven and Hell andThe Genesis According to Spiritism.
Chico Xavier wrote over 490 additional books, which expand on thespiritualist doctrine.
As explained in the first of the 1,019 questions and answers inThe Spirits Book:
1. What is God? Answer: "God is the Supreme Intelligence-First Cause of all things."[32]
The consensus in Spiritism is that God, the Great Creator, is above everything, including all human things such as rituals, dogmas, denominations or any other thing.
Persons newly adhering to Buddhism traditionally "Taking Three Refuge" (expressfaith in theThree Jewels –Buddha,Dhamma, andSangha) before amonk,nun, or similar representative, with often the sangha, the community of practitioners, also in ritual attendance.
Throughout thetimeline of Buddhism, conversions of entire countries and regions to Buddhism were frequent, as Buddhism spread throughout Asia. For example, in the 11th century inBurma, kingAnoratha converted his entire country toTheravada Buddhism. At the end of the 12th century,Jayavarman VII set the stage for conversion of theKhmer people to Theravada Buddhism. Mass conversions of areas and communities to Buddhism occur up to the present day, for example, in theDalit Buddhist movement in India there have beenorganized mass conversions.
Exceptions to encouraging conversion may occur in some Buddhist movements. InTibetan Buddhism, for example, thecurrent Dalai Lama discourages active attempts to win converts.[33][34]
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanningmonotheism,polytheism,panentheism,pantheism,pandeism,monism, andatheism among others. Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no universally accepted governing body, no binding holy book nor any mandatory prayer attendance requirements.[35][36][37] In its diffuse and open structure, numerous schools and sects of Hinduism have developed and spun off in India with help from itsascetic scholars, since theVedic age. The sixAstika and two Nastika schools ofHindu philosophy, in its history, did not develop a missionary or proselytization methodology, and they co-existed with each other. Most Hindu sub-schools and sects do not actively seek converts.[38] Individuals have had a choice to enter, leave or change their god(s), spiritual convictions, accept or discard any rituals and practices, and pursue spiritual knowledge and liberation (moksha) in different ways.[39][40] However, various schools of Hinduism do have some core common beliefs, such as the belief that all living beings haveAtman (soul), a belief inkarma theory, spirituality,ahimsa (non-violence) as the greatest dharma or virtue, and others.[41]
Religious conversion to Hinduism has a long history outside India. Merchants and traders of India, particularly from Indian peninsula, carried their religious ideas, which led to religious conversions to Hinduism in Indonesia, Champa, Cambodia and Burma.[42][43][44] Some sects of Hindus, particularly of theBhakti schools began seeking or accepting converts in early to mid 20th century. For example, groups like theInternational Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow their sects of Hinduism and have their own religious conversion procedure.[45]
Since 1800 CE, religious conversion from and toHinduism has been a controversial subject within Hinduism. Some have suggested that the concept of missionary conversion, either way, is contrary to the precepts of Hinduism.[46] Religious leaders of some of Hinduism sects such asBrahmo Samaj have seen Hinduism as a non-missionary religion yet welcomed new members, while other leaders of Hinduism's diverse schools have stated that with the arrival of missionary Islam and Christianity in India, the view that "there is no such thing as proselytism in Hinduism" must be re-examined.[46][47]
In recent decades, mainstream Hinduism schools have attempted to systematize ways to accept religious converts, with an increase in inter-religious mixed marriages.[41] The steps involved in becoming a Hindu have variously included a period where the interested person gets an informalardha-Hindu name and studies ancient literature on spiritual path and practices (English translations ofUpanishads,Agama,Itihasa, ethics inSutra, Hindu festivals,yoga).[41] If after a period of study, the individual still wants to convert, aNamakarana Samskara ceremony is held, where the individual adopts a traditional Hindu name. The initiation ceremony may also includeYajna (i.e., fire ritual with Sanskrit hymns) under guidance of a local Hindu priest.[41] Some of these places aremathas andasramas (hermitage, monastery), where one or moregurus (spiritual guide) conduct the conversion and offer spiritual discussions.[41] Some schools encourage the new convert to learn and participate in community activities such as festivals (Diwali etc.), read and discuss ancient literature, learn and engage in rites of passages (ceremonies of birth, first feeding, first learning day, age of majority, wedding, cremation and others).[41]
Jainism accepts anyone who wants to embrace the religion. There is no specific ritual for becoming a Jain. One does not need to ask any authorities for admission. One becomes a Jain on one's own by observing the five vows (vratas)[48] The five main vows as mentioned in the ancientJain texts likeTattvarthasutra are:[49][50]
Following the five vows is the main requirement in Jainism. All other aspects such as visiting temples are secondary.Jain monks and nuns are required to observe these five vows strictly.[48]
Sikhism is not known to openly proselytize conversions, however it is open and accepting to anyone wanting to take on the Sikh faith.[54][55]
In the second half of the 20th century, the rapid growth ofnew religious movements (NRMs) led some psychologists and other scholars to propose that these groups were using "brainwashing" or "mind control" techniques to gain converts. This theory was publicized by the popular news media but disputed by other scholars, including somesociologists of religion.[56][57][58][59]
In the 1960s sociologistJohn Lofland lived withUnification ChurchmissionaryYoung Oon Kim and a small group of American church members inCalifornia and studied their activities in trying to promote their beliefs and win converts to their church. Lofland noted that most of their efforts were ineffective and that most of the people who joined did so because of personal relationships – often family relationships – with existing members.[60] Lofland summarised his findings in 1964 in a doctoral thesis entitled "The World Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes", and in 1966 in book form (published byPrentice-Hall) asDoomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith. It is considered[by whom?] to be one of the most important and widely cited studies of the process of religious conversion, and one of the first modern sociological studies of a new religious movement.[61][62]
TheChurch of Scientology attempts to gain converts by offering "free stress tests".[63] It has also used the celebrity status of some of its members (most notably that of the American actorTom Cruise) to attract converts.[64][65] The Church of Scientology requires that all converts sign a legalwaiver which covers their relationship with the Church of Scientology before engaging in Scientology services.[66]
Research in the United States and in the Netherlands has shown apositive correlation between areas lacking mainstream churches and the percentage of people who are members of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence ofNew Age centres.[67][68]
On the other end of the proselytising scale are religions that do not accept any converts. Often these are relatively small, close-knit minority religions that are ethnically based such as theYazidis,Druze, andMandaeans. The Parsis, aZoroastrianism group based in India, classically does not accept converts, but this issue became controversial in the 20th century due to a rapid decline in membership.[69]Chinese traditional religion lacks clear criteria for membership, and hence for conversion. However,Taoism does have its own religious conversion ceremony which seems[original research?] to be adopted and modified fromChinese Buddhist refuge-taking ceremonies. TheShakers and some Indianeunuch brotherhoods do not allow procreation, so that every member is a convert.[citation needed]
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Different factors and circumstances may operate and interact to persuade individuals of groups to convert and adopt a new set of religious doctrines and habits.
Religious enthusiasm for proselytism can play a role. For example, theNew Testament chronicles the personal activities of theApostles and their followers in inspiredpreaching,miracle-working and the subsequent gathering of followers. Freshly-convertedIrish and Anglo-Saxon priestsspread their new-found faith among pagan British and Germanic peoples. Missions of the 19th century spread against a background of North Atlanticrevivalism with itsemotionalism and mass-meetingcrowd psychological behaviours.
Messianism may prepare groups for the coming of aMessiah or of asaviour. Thus the 1st-centuryLevant, steeped in expectations of overturningthe political situation, provided fertile ground fornascent Christianity and other Jewish messianic sects, such as theZealots.
Some religious traditions, rather than stressing emotion in the conversion process, emphasise the importance ofphilosophical thought as a pathway to adopting a new religion.Saint Paulin Athens fits here, as do some of theIndic religions (such asBuddhism andJainism). The historicalGod-fearers may represent a philosophical bridge between Hellenism andAbrahamic faith.
A religious creed which can capture the ear and support of secular power can become aprestige movement, encouraging the mass of a people to follow its tenets. Christianity grew after becoming thestate religion in Armenia, in theRoman Empire, and inEthiopia.Eastern Orthodoxy expanded when it gainedofficial sanction in Kievan Rus'.
Some people convert under the influence of other social conditions. Early Christianity attracted followers by offeringcommunity material support and enhanced status for disadvantaged groups such as women and slaves.[70]Islam allegedly spread in North Africa through just administration, and in the Balkans by integrating new believers with improved tax conditions and social prestige.Colonial missions since the 19th century have attracted people to an implied nexus of material well-being,civilisation, and European-style religion.
Force can – at least apparently – coerce people into adopting different ideas.Religious police in (for example)Iran andSaudi Arabia answer for the correct religious expression of those in their purview. TheInquisition in France and in Iberia worked to convertheretics – withvarying success.Frankish armies spreadRoman Catholicism eastwards in the Middle Ages. Religious wars and suppression shaped the histories of theBaltic tribes, theHussites and theHuguenots.
On the other hand,persecution can drive religious faith and practice underground and strengthen the resolve of oppressed adherents – as in the cases of theWaldenses or theBaháʼí Faith.
TheUnited NationsUniversal Declaration of Human Rights defines religious conversion as ahuman right: "Everyone has the right tofreedom of thought, conscience andreligion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief" (Article 18). Despite this UN-declared human right, some groups forbid or restrict religious conversion (see below).
Based on the declaration theUnited Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) drafted theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding treaty. It states that "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.1). "No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice" (Article 18.2).
TheUNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in 1993: "The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief,including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views ... Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or beliefor to convert." (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; emphasis added)
Some countries distinguish voluntary, motivated conversion from organized proselytism, attempting to restrict the latter. The boundary between them is not easily defined: what one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness-bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper. Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by C. Davis, published inCleveland State University'sJournal of Law and Health: "According to theUnion of American Hebrew Congregations,Jews for Jesus andHebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates fordeprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing ... are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus andCampus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certainHassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers ofReverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis."[71]
Since the collapse of the formerSoviet Union theRussian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by theRoman Catholic Church, theSalvation Army,Jehovah's Witnesses, and other religious movements in what it refers to as itscanonical territory.[citation needed]
Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses, but also with somePentecostals, over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictatorIoannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness,Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested for trying to preach his faith from door to door. In another case,Larissis v. Greece, a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in theEuropean Court of Human Rights.[72]
Aqidah – translates as "creed". Technically, theShahadah (first pillar) is the only obligatory statement offaith in Islam; however, over time a list of six items evolved, the essentials of faith (Iman Mufassal), namely: belief in God, in God's angels, scriptures, messengers, day of judgment, and God's power.
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