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Reformed worship isreligious devotion to God as conducted byReformed or Calvinistic Christians, includingPresbyterians. Despite considerable local and national variation, public worship in most Reformed and Presbyterian churches is governed by theRegulative principle of worship.
Huldrych Zwingli, who began his reforming work inZurich in 1518, introduced many radical changes to worship. His Sunday service, instituted in 1519, was apparently derived from aliturgy calledProne, alate Medieval service which was sometimes held before, during, or aftermass. It contained theLord's Prayer, aHail Mary, asermon, a remembrance of those who had died the previous week, another Lord's Prayer and Hail Mary, theApostles' Creed, theDecalogue,confession, andabsolution.[1]
Martin Bucer, the reformer ofStrasbourg, believed that proper worship must be conducted in obedience to the Bible, and for this reason he sought to eliminate many of the dramatic ceremonies which were part of the liturgy of the church. He limited worship topreaching,almsgiving, theEucharist, and prayer.John Oecolampadius, inBasel, believed that while the Bible did not give detailed liturgical instruction, all worship must be guided by biblical principles. For him this meant that worship should be simple and unpretentious.[2]
John Calvin's ideas about worship were influencedMartin Bucer andWilliam Farel during his time inStrasbourg beginning in 1538.[3] When he came toGeneva in 1536, Farel had already begun a Zwinglian reformation.[4] His liturgy emphasized the unworthiness of the worshiper with the Ten Commandments being sung every Sunday, a practice probably taken fromMartin Bucer. The service was also very didactic, with even the prayers written with the intention to instruct.[5] Calvin did not insist on having explicit biblical precedents for every element of worship, but looked to theearly church as his model and retained whatever he considered edifying.[6] The liturgy was entirely in the vernacular, and the people were to participate in the prayers.[7]
Calvin's Geneva became the model for allcontinental Reformed worship, and by the end of the sixteenth century a fixed liturgy was being used by all Reformed churches.[8]Dutch Reformed churches developed an order of worship in refugee churches in England and Germany which was ratified atsynods inDordrecht in 1574 and 1578. The form emphasizes self-examination between thewords of institution and communion consisting of accepting the misery of one's sin, assurance of mercy, and turning away those who are unrepentant.[9]
The 1552Book of Common Prayer was influenced by Reformed thinking through Scottish reformerJohn Knox's insistence on including what became known as theblack rubric, a declaration that kneeling at the Eucharist did not implyadoration. Knox also wrote a liturgy for the newly foundedChurch of Scotland based on John Calvin's liturgy.[10] Knox's liturgy set a structure for worship in Scotland, though ministers could improvise. Following theUnion of the Crowns in 1603, the English made several attempts to impose theBook of Common Prayer on the Scots, which they fiercely resisted.[11]
Following their return from exile in Geneva during the reign ofQueen Mary I andKing Philip, English Protestants known asPuritans (who remained within the Church of England) andseparatists (who separated from it) began to attempt to introduce some of the more radical reforms they had experienced in Geneva into the worship of the Church of England, and in some ways to go beyond them.[12] They sought to rid worship of any element not specifically prescribed in the Bible, though they disagreed on the practical implications of this. They also favored liturgical decisions to be made at the lowest level possible, rather than by a regional or national authority.[13]
In the years leading up to the Reformation,baptism was often conducted in private as a celebration of the birth of children. The rite was considered necessary for salvation, and so midwives often baptized children to avoid the risk that the child would die unbaptized.[14] Strasbourg reformer Martin Bucer made it a part of the worship service so that parishioners could be reminded of their own baptism, which was to be the sign of their incorporation into the church. The parents of children were to bring their children to the font following the sermon, and were admonished tocatechize their children, a process which was intended to begin around age ten.[15] Catechesis was considered to be entailed in baptism itself, and weekly catechetical services were instituted for this purpose.[16] Zwingli understood baptism to be a sign of membership in a community rather than a ritual which conferred salvation on individuals. He, or possibly Oecolampadius, can be credited with first articulating this line of thought, later calledcovenant theology, which became the Reformedsacramental theology.[17] During the Reformation,Anabaptists opposed the practice of infant baptism, arguing that only those who had made a profession of faith should be administered the rite. This was based on a theology ofdecisional regeneration, the teaching that only those who had made a decision for Christ could be saved. Against this, the Reformed believed that justification is only by grace, rather than based on any human decision.[18]
Baptism also became a public event in Geneva, with the font moved to the front of the church or even being attached to the pulpit.Confirmation was abolished, but as in Strasbourg children were expected to make a public profession of faith when able, and this became the standard rite of passage for children to be admitted to communion in Reformed churches.[6] Puritans also saw baptism as a prophetic sign at the beginning of Christian life. Confession of sin and professions of faith (such as reciting the Apostles' Creed) were considered the fulfillment of the sign, the living out of one's baptism, or improving on one's baptism.[19]
The rise ofrevivalism in the eighteenth century brought about a greater emphasis onconversion, often as a dramatic emotional experience, as the means of beginning the Christian life rather than baptism. Congregationalist ministerHorace Bushnell led a return to earlier understandings of baptism and catechesis.[20] In the twentieth century some scholars argued that sacraments were not of biblical origin, leading to a revival of ceremony surrounding the sacraments which the reformers had removed.[21]
Rather than preaching on the appointedgospel, as was the common practice at the time Zwingli preached through consecutive books of the Bible,[1] a practice known aslectio continua which he learned from reading the sermons ofJohn Chrysostom.[22]John Oecolampadius preached from the Hebrew text rather than the Latin, though most theologians during the time often could not even read Greek.[23] In Strasbourg, Martin Bucer and its other preachers also preachedlectio continua. There,catechetical preaching took place every Sunday afternoon, so that the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the sacraments were explained every year. This practice was also instituted in Wittenburg, Zurich, Basel, and Constance.[24] Calvin preferred to conduct the entire service from the pulpit, and pulpits became prominent features in Reformed churches.[6]
Reformed worship in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries emphasized hearing the preached word.Catechesis for young and old ensured that what was heard was understood. Congregational prayers were long and theologically weighty.[25]
Music in worship was abolished altogether by Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich in 1523 based on a belief that the Bible did not allow for it and that physical means could not lead to spiritual edification.[26]
A number of German cities published Protestant songbooks beforeMartin Luther'sGeystliche gesangk Buchleyn, including Nuremberg and Erfurt.[27] The reformed Church in Strasbourg, under the leadership of Martin Bucer, was one of the first to institutecongregational singing to replace choral singing, and produced manypsalms andhymns for this purpose, including some (such as 'Gott sei gelobt') by Luther. Although the first Strasbourg liturgies didn't include music, publishers soon began including musical notation.[28] Early on, the biblical Psalms were used almost exclusively by the Strasbougers. Successive editions of theStrasbourg Psalter contained increasing numbers of psalms.[29] InConstance, whereJohannes Zwick and theBlarer brothers led, hymns as well as psalms were used, with theConstance Hymn Book of 1540 being divided evenly between hymns and psalms. In 1537, the Strasbourgers also began to include original hymns in theirPsalter.[30]
John Calvin began work on theGenevan Psalter in the French language in 1538. This psalter contained translations by poets such asClément Marot and melodies written by composers such asClaude Goudimel andLouis Bourgeois. It consisted almost exclusively of psalms, andexclusive psalmody became the dominant practice among the Reformed for the next 200 years.[31] Psalms were to be sung inunison by the congregation, thoughharmony was permitted in private.[32] Notably, theScottish Psalter was produced in 1564, based in part on Calvin's Genevan Psalter.
Singing a Psalm in unison was a standard practice before and after the sermon in all Reformed churches in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with Zurich ending their prohibition on church music in 1598. A leader sang each line with the congregation repeating. Organs were forbidden, though trumpets were gradually introduced.[25] Works like the 1562 EnglishSternhold and Hopkins Psalter were very popular among the Reformed. Literal translations of the Psalms began to be preferred by the Reformed over the looser translations of theGenevan andSternhold and Hopkins psalters in the latter part of the sixteenth century.[33] Some of the most influential psalters of the seventeenth century were theScottish Psalter of 1635 and theBay Psalm Book of 1640, which was the first book printed in America.[34]
Isaac Watts, an early eighteenth-century EnglishCongregationalist minister, translated psalms much more freely than his predecessors. Some complained that his psalms were not translations at all, but paraphrases. Watts also wrote many hymns, many of which imitated the psalms. The rise ofpietism in the eighteenth century led to an even greater dominance of hymns.[35]
Hymnody became acceptable for Presbyterians around the middle of the nineteenth century, though theReformed Presbyterians continue to insist onexclusive a capella psalmody. The use oforgans andchoirs also became acceptable in Reformed churches during the nineteenth century, even in Zurich.[36]
Sparked in 2001, with the publishing ofIn Christ Alone, the modern hymn movement has grown, primarily among Reformed Christians, as a response to the commercialism, false teaching, and arguably weaker theology found in much of theContemporary Christian Music industry. The modern hymn movement seeks to elevate lyrical content over musical composition; rich theological truth over mindless, empty, or repetitive choruses. IncludingIn Christ Alone by Keith Getty & Stuart Townend, other well known examples of modern hymns includeYet Not I But Through Christ in Me byCityAlight,His Mercy is More byMatt Papa & Matt Boswell, andHow Deep the Father's Love for Us byStuart Townend. Other artists that have and continue to contribute to this movement includeSovereign Grace Music, The Enfield Hymn Sessions, andAaron Keyes. With these and other artists' compositions, modern hymns continue to be shared, adopted throughout Reformed churches as well as other Christian denominations and groups while continuing to be translated into multiple languages.[37]
Zwingli and Jud also preached againstprayer to saints, though theHail Mary was retained in the liturgy until 1563. Starting in 1525, theEucharist, which had been celebrated by priests each Sunday but only with thelaity communing atChristmas,Easter,Pentecost, and the festival of Sts.Felix and Regula, the patron saints of Zurich, now only took place at those festivals, with the laity always participating.[26] The festivals ofCircumcision,Annunciation, andAscension were also retained.[38]
In Geneva,Saints' days were abolished, with only Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost retained as holy days to be celebrated on Sundays, with a break in thelectio continua preaching for a sermon suited for the occasion.[38] Incontinental Reformed churches, the fiveevangelical feasts of Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost were regularly celebrated.[39]Puritans largely discarded the church calendar.[40]
Zwingli and his partnerLeo Jud also introduced daily morningprophesyings, during which the Old Testament was expounded and the people invited to respond.[1] In Geneva, every Wednesday became a day of prayer which focused on day-to-day concerns.[41]
Followers of separatistJohn Robinson of theScrooby Congregation, the group from which thePilgrims who emigrated to Massachusetts Bay in 1620 was drawn, only allowedextemporaneous prayer.[42]
Calvin took a mediating position between Luther and Zwingli regarding the sacrament of the Lord's Supper (also known as Communion). He held that Christ's body and blood are spiritually (rather than physically, as Luther insisted) conveyed to those who partake in faith.[43] The people sat or knelt at a table to take communion.[44] Calvin wished to have the Lord's Supper celebrated each Sunday, but was not allowed by the city council. Instead, it was celebrated every quarter, with an intense period of self-examination by the people beforehand.[45] The determination of worthiness to receive the Lord's Supper was to be based upon trust in God alone for forgiveness of sin, repentance, and reconciliation with others, and theconsistory was to keep watch to prevent flagrant, unrepentant offenders from partaking. Exclusion from the Lord's Supper was normally intended to be temporary, until the offender repented.[46]In Reformed churches throughout continental Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Lord's Supper was celebrated on feast days, and parishioners were expected to dress in a dignified manner. Common bread was used rather than unleavenedsacramental bread.[47]
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