Revivals of ancient Roman polytheism have taken various forms in the modern era. These efforts seek to re-establish thetraditional Romancults and customs, often referred to ascultus deorum romanorum (worship of the Roman gods),religio romana (Roman religion),via romana agli dei (the Roman way to the gods),Roman-Italic religion, orgentile Roman religion. Several loosely affiliated organizations have emerged in the contemporary period.[1][2]
Christianity was introduced late inMani, with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monkNikon "the Metanoite" (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantlypagan Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries.Patrick Leigh Fermor noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century:
Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-troglodytic Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival ofSt. Augustine in far-awayKent.[3]
According toConstantine VII inDe Administrando Imperio, the Maniots were referred to as 'Hellenes' and only fullyChristianized in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region's mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire's Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life ofGemistos Plethon.
Another safe area for the pagans was the city ofHarran which, despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of theRashidun Caliphate in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within theDiyar Mudar region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During theFirst Fitna, the people of Harran sided withMu'awiya I overAli at theBattle of Siffin in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.[4]
Under theUmayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph,Marwan II, from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city's pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire's eastern provinces.[5] The city's prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 underUmar II, attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.[6]
Although Harran lost its capital status under theAbbasid Caliphate, it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign ofHarun al-Rashid (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.[7] The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially underAl-Ma'mun in 830.[8] Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.
Traces of ancient Roman and Mediterranean religions survive through theOsirian Egyptian Order (OOE), which originated from priests who fled Alexandria around 391 CE after the destruction of the Serapeum and settled in Naples.[9] The OOE preserved Greco-Roman and Egyptian ritual traditions continuously over the centuries.[10]Giuliano Kremmerz was initiated into the OOE in the late 19th century,[11] and founded the Brotherhood of Myriam, which directly descends from the OOE.[12] This phenomenon can be understood as a form of survival, as opposed to revival, of ancient ritual practices, and it has influenced some modern pagan groups in Italy.[13]
Interest in revivingancient Roman religious traditions can be traced to theRenaissance, with figures such asGemistus Pletho who influencedCosimo de Medici to establish theFlorentine Neoplatonic Academy andJulius Pomponius Laetus (student of Pletho) who advocated for a revival[1] and established theRoman academy which secretly celebrated theNatale di Roma, an annual festival held inRome on 21 April to celebrate thefounding of the city.[14] According tolegend,Romulus is said to have founded the city of Rome on 21 April, 753 BC. From this date, the Roman chronology derived its system, known by theLatin phraseAb urbe condita, meaning 'from the founding of the City', which counted the years from this presumed foundation. The Academy was dissolved in 1468 whenPope Paul II ordered the arrest and execution of some of the members,Pope Sixtus IV allowed Laetus to open the academy again until theSack of Rome of the 1527.
After theFrench Revolution, the French lawyer Gabriel André Aucler (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the nameQuintus Nautius and sought torevive paganism, styling himself as its leader. He designedreligious clothing and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he publishedLa Thréicie, presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed byGérard de Nerval inLes Illuminés (1852).[15]Admiringancient Greece andancient Rome, Aucler supported theFrench Revolution and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.[16] He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performedOrphic rites at his home.[17] His followers were mainly his household.[15] In 1799, he publishedLa Thréicie, advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promotinguniversal animation.[18]
In his later years, Aucler published a poem that some interpret as a recantation of his beliefs. He died in 1815 inBourges.[19] His pagan rites influenced the occultistLazare Lenain [fr], whileGérard de Nerval wrote an essay about him inLes Illuminés (1852).[20]
During 19th-century Italy, the fall of thePapal States and the process ofItalian unification fosteredanti-clerical sentiment among the intelligentsia. Intellectuals like archaeologistGiacomo Boni[21] Pagan and writerRoggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo promoted the restoration of Roman religious practices.[22][23]
Some religious revivalists were also involved inoccultism,Pythagoreanism, andFreemasonry, including figures likeAmedeo Rocco Armentano,Arturo Reghini, and Giulio Parise. In 1914, Reghini published Imperialismo Pagano (Pagan Imperialism), claiming an unbroken initiatory lineage in Italy that linked ancient Roman religion to modern times, via historical figures such asNuma Pompilius,Virgil,Dante Alighieri, andGiuseppe Mazzini.[24]
The efforts to revive Roman cults aligned with the rise of theNational Fascist Party, and several polytheists attempted to form alliances with fascism. However, the signing of theLateran Treaty in 1929 byBenito Mussolini andPope Pius XI left polytheists like Musmeci and Reghini disillusioned.[22][25] Influenced by Reghini's work and theUr Group, modern groups have emerged in Italy, including theAssociazione Tradizionale Pietas (established in 2005) and theRoman Traditional Movement.
The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years followingfascism was largely driven byJulius Evola. By the late 1960s, a renewed "operational" interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of theGruppo di Ur.[26] Evola's writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such asBuddhism,Hinduism,sexual magic, and privateritual nudity. This period saw the rise of theGruppo dei Dioscuri in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such asL'Impeto della vera cultura andRivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione, before fading from public view.[27]
Contrary to some claims of dissolution, particularly byRenato del Ponte, the group continued its activities after its founder's death in 2000, with its last public appearance being a conference titled "Oltre ogni distruzione – la Tradizione vive."[28] Interest in ancient Roman religion also appeared in the Evolian magazineArthos, founded inGenoa in 1972, directed by Renato del Ponte, who authored works likeDei e miti italici (1985) andLa religione dei Romani (1993). In 1984, experiences from the Dioscuri were revisited in theGruppo Arx led by Salvatore Ruta, a former member of the original group. Between 1984 and 1986, thePythagorean Association, claimed to be a continuation of Arturo Reghini's original group, emerged in Calabria and Sicily, publishing the magazineYghìeia until it ceased in 1988. Member Roberto Sestito then initiated various editorial activities, including the magazineIgnis (1990–1992) and the bulletinIl flauto di Pan (2000), though pagan-Roman themes were notably absent.[29] The Genoese publisherIl Basilisco released numerous works in theCollana di Studi Pagani between 1979 and 1989, featuring texts by notable figures such asSimmaco,Porfirio, andemperor Julian. The theme of Roman Tradition also appeared in the journalPolitica Romana (1994–2004) by the associationSenatus, considered by many as a Roman-pagan, Pythagorean, and "Reghiniana" publication. A prominent activist during this time was actor Roberto Corbiletto, who died mysteriously in a lightning-related fire in 1999.
In the 2000s,Associazione Tradizionale Pietas began reconstructing temples across Italy and sought legal recognition from the state, drawing inspiration from similar groups likeYSEE in Greece. In 2023, Pietas participated in theECER meeting, resulting in the signing of the Riga Declaration, which calls for the recognition of European ethnic religions.[30]
Public rituals, such as those celebrating the ancient festival of theNatale di Roma, have also resumed in recent years.[31][32][33] Nowadays, "Natale di Roma" has been celebrated with conferences and historical reenactments. In recent years, this event has regained significance, leading Italian institutions to recognize it more. Associations such as the "Gruppo Storico Romano" (GSR) have contributed to organizing the event through historical reenactments and religious events with the affiliated associations involved in the modern Roman religion. The Gruppo Storico Romano annually organizes a parade with participants in period costumes and representations of scenes from ancient life and celebrations that echo the religious rites of ancient Rome.[34]
In 2024, the 2777th "Natale di Roma" was held, with the participation of Italian institutional representatives. During the event, a plan was announced to increase funding for historical reenactments and possible legislation aimed at regulating such celebrations to preserve and enhance cultural traditions. Additionally, the band of the Italian Army participated in the celebrations.[35] Every year, organizations from across Europe come to celebrate this date, demonstrating the importance and international appeal of the event.[36]
The idea of practicing Roman religion in the modern era has spread beyond Italy, with practitioners found in countries across Europe and the Americas. The most prominent international organization isNova Roma, founded in 1998, with active groups worldwide.[37]
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