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In theautomotive industry,rebadging is a form ofmarket segmentation used byautomobile manufacturers around the world. To allow forproduct differentiation without designing or engineering a new model or brand (at high cost or risk), a manufacturer creates a distinct automobile by applying a new "badge" ortrademark (brand, logo, or manufacturer's name/make/marque) to an existing product line.[1][2]
Rebadging is also known asrebranding andbadge engineering; the latter is an intentionally ironicmisnomer in that little or no actual engineering takes place.[3][4] The term originated with the practice of replacing an automobile's emblems to create an ostensibly new model sold by a different maker. Changes may be confined to swapping badges and emblems, or may encompass minor styling differences, as with cosmetic changes toheadlights, taillights, front and rearfascias, and even outer body skins. More extreme examples involve differingengines anddrivetrains. The objective is "to spread the huge development costs of a new vehicle over as many cars as possible".[5] An example is General Motors' rebadging of theCamaro as theFirebird, a successful model from the 1960s through to the 2000s.[6] In most cases, consumers are interested in each brand's focus "on the unique elements of styling and driving characteristics".[5] Some cars would not be marketed without the cost savings that are obtained from this practice, and carmakers can develop many "different models – all wearing different badges – off the one platform".[7]
In several countries including Japan, manufacturers often use the phrase "OEM supply" or "OEM-supplied" to denote vehicles that are a rebadged model from or for other manufacturers.[8][9][10]
Althoughplatform sharing can often involve rebadging and rebranding, it can extend further, as the design may be used across multiple configurations. For example, a single platform may underpin a sedan, hatchback, or SUV/CUV body designs.
Automotive industry rebadging can be compared withwhite-label products in other consumer goods industries, such asconsumer electronics andpower tools.
The first case of badge engineering appeared in 1917 with the Texan automobile assembled in Fort Worth, Texas, that made use ofElcar bodies made in Elkhart, Indiana.[11][12]
"Probably the industry's first example of one car becoming another" occurred in 1926 whenNash Motors' newly introduced smaller-sizedAjax models were discontinued in 1926 after over 22,000 Ajax cars were sold during the brand's inaugural year.[13] The chairman and CEO of the company,Charles W. Nash, ordered that the Ajax models be marketed as the "Nash Light Six", Nash being a known and respected automobile brand.[14] Production was stopped for two days so Nash emblems, hubcaps, and radiator shells could be exchanged on all unshipped Ajax cars.[13] Conversion kits were also distributed at no charge to Ajax owners to transform their cars and protect the investment they had made in purchasing an automobile made by Nash.[15]
Starting with the beginning of General Motors in 1909, chassis and platforms were shared with all brands.GMC, which historically was a truck builder, began to offer its products branded asChevrolet, and vehicles produced by GM were built oncommon platforms shared with Chevrolet,Oakland,Oldsmobile,Buick, andCadillac. Exterior appearances were gradually upgraded between these vehicle brands. This was partly because all bodywork was provided byFisher Body which was bought by GM in 1925, and the introduction of the Art and Color Section in 1928, directed byHarley Earl. For the 1958 model year, GM was promoting its fiftieth year of production and introduced anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick,[16] Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared an almost identical appearance on all models for each brand and made special luxury models with a shared appearance;Cadillac Eldorado Seville,Buick Limited Riviera,Oldsmobile Starfire 98,Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and theChevrolet Bel-Air Impala.
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A later example wasWolseley Motors after it was bought out byWilliam Morris. AfterWorld War I, "Wolseley started to lose its identity and eventually succumbed to badge engineering."[17] This was repeated with the consolidation ofAustin Motor Company and theNuffield Organization (parent company ofMorris Motors) to form theBritish Motor Corporation (BMC). Therationalization of production to gain efficiencies "did not extend to marketing", and each "model was adapted, by variation in trim and accessories, to appeal to customer loyalties for whom the badge denoting the company of origin was an important selling advantage ... 'Badge Engineering', as it became known, was symptomatic of a policy of sales competition between the constituent organizations".[18] The ultimate example of BMC badge engineering was the 1962BMC ADO16 which was available badged as a Morris, MG, Austin, Wolseley,Riley and the upmarketVanden Plas. A year earlier, the Mini was also available as Austin, Morris, Riley, and Wolseley – the latter two having slightly bigger boots.
Badge engineering often occurs when an individual manufacturer (such as the regionalBig Threes of the United States, Europe, and Japan) owns a portfolio of differentbrands and markets the same car under different brands and nameplates. The practice is used for multiple reasons. In one example, a company may do so to expand its range of different brands in a market without the cost of developing completely new models. In the United States, General Motors may sell a car through each brand; for example, the Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, and Cadillac Escalade each share a common body.[19]
In another example, the same model is rebadged when it is sold in different regions and markets. In Australia, during the 1980s and 1990s, theButton car plan required importedNissans and Toyotas to adoptFord and Holden (GM) nameplates. In the United Kingdom, Opel-produced vehicles are marketed under the Vauxhall brand; when sold in the United States, Opels were marketed as Saturns, Chevrolets, and Buicks. Conversely, the Australian Holden brand was never sold in North America, but the Holden Monaro and Holden Commodore were sold under the Pontiac (Pontiac GTO, Pontiac G8), Chevrolet (Chevrolet SS), and Buick (Buick Regal Sportback/Buick Regal TourX) nameplates.[citation needed]
Another way badge engineering may occur is when two separate manufacturers trade products, filling gaps in their respective product lineups. During the 1990s, Honda and Isuzu entered into such an agreement, with Isuzu marketing the first-generationHonda Odyssey as theIsuzu Oasis as its first minivan. In return, Honda received theIsuzu Rodeo andIsuzu Trooper SUVs, which became theHonda Passport andAcura SLX; the agreement allowed both Honda and Isuzu to enter new vehicle segments without the cost of engineering an all-new vehicle design (at the same time, in Europe, theHonda Crossroad was a rebadgedLand Rover Discovery).[20][21][22]
During the late 2000s and early 2010s, theVolkswagen Routan was a rebranded version of the Dodge Grand Caravan, supplied as Volkswagen sought to re-enter the North American minivan segment without the investment of federalizing its design. Assembled by Chrysler with a Chrysler powertrain, the Routan received its own styling and content features as well as a standard "sportier suspension and steering".[23]
In Japan, automobile manufacturers differed in the marketing of their product ranges. In contrast to marketing a single vehicle under multiple brand names (with minor changes to exterior bodywork), Japanese manufacturers marketed vehicles through multiple sales networks, with a distinct vehicle being sold under various model nameplates (from a single manufacturer).
Toyota marketed theCorolla in Japan exclusively atToyota Corolla Store locations; atToyota Auto Store locations, it was named theToyota Sprinter. Nissan sold theNissan Cedric through itsNissan Bluebird Store network, with the identicalNissan Gloria through theNissan Prince Store network. Honda previously marketed theHonda Accord through multiple sales networks, marketing the Accord through theHonda Clio network and renaming it as theHonda Vigor forHonda Verno locations (conversely, the Vigor was renamed theHonda Inspire for the Clio network).[citation needed]
The practice of producing multiple versions of the same vehicle would eventually lead to distinct vehicles produced for export. In North America, the Toyota Sprinter was marketed as the Chevrolet Nova (and theGeo Prizm that replaced it). The Honda Vigor and Inspire were marketed as the Acura Vigor and TL; Nissan sold the Gloria in the United States as theInfiniti M45.[citation needed]
Two automakers can also pool resources by operating ajoint venture to create a product and then selling each as their own. For example,General Motors andToyota formedNUMMI. The vehicles produced from this venture (though not necessarily at NUMMI itself) included theToyota Sprinter/Chevrolet Prizm, and later theToyota Matrix/Pontiac Vibe. In another agreement, Ford and Nissan developed and produced theMercury Villager andNissan Quest minivans from 1993 through 2002.
Another example was the cooperative work betweenVolkswagen andFord to develop theVW Sharan,Ford Galaxy, andSEAT Alhambra.
Badge engineering may occur when one company allows another, otherwise unaffiliated, company to market a revised version of their product through an OEM deal, as withVolkswagen marketing a modified version of theDodge Caravan andChrysler Town and Country minivans as theVolkswagen Routan (2009–2014).
Another example was the joint venture of Mitsubishi and Chrysler that resulted in vehicles produced byDiamond-Star Motors that were marketed under various nameplates from 1985 until 1993.
In China, foreign manufacturers were required to form a joint venture with a local manufacturer to manufacture automobiles in the country.[24] Prior to 2022, the Chinese government dictates that no more than two joint ventures are allowed for each foreign investor.[25] Larger foreign manufacturers often set up two joint ventures to maximize the market reach, including Toyota (FAW Toyota andGAC Toyota), Ford (JMC-Ford andChangan Ford), Volkswagen (SAIC-VW andFAW-VW) and Honda (Dongfeng Honda andGuangqi Honda). To distribute the production and sales rights to each joint venture, manufacturers often resort to a similar strategy deployed in Japan: simply producing the exact model under two different names with minor changes to exterior bodywork.
GAC Toyota has produced the Levin as a twin model to the FAW Toyota-builtCorolla and the Wildlander as the alternative to theRAV4. Honda awarded several models to two joint ventures, which spawned the Breeze from the originalCR-V, theElysion from theOdyssey, the XR-V from theHR-V, and others.
In other cases, foreign manufacturers may also rebadge a model developed by its partner, sometimes for exports to other markets. Examples include the second generationChevrolet Captiva which is an export version of theBaojun 530 made bySAIC-GM-Wuling, or theFord Territory, a reworked version of theYusheng S330 developed byJiangling Motors (JMC).
Badge engineering could be used as a strategy to lengthen the life cycle of a vehicle. After a product has reached the end of its life cycle, it may be transferred to another brand, mostly from the same holding company or joint venture. Examples include theSEAT Exeo, a rebadgedAudi A4 B7 with reworked styling, which was built in Spain from used production tooling from the Audi plant inIngolstadt after the A4 B7 production had ended. The tooling was dismantled from Ingolstadt and was sent to the SEAT manufacturing plant inMartorell, Spain, to be reinstalled.[26][27]
Another example is the Dongfeng Fengdu MX6, which was produced after the near-identicalNissan X-Trail (T31) production had ended,[28] and the Maruti Suzuki Zen Estilo, which is based on the then-recently discontinuedSuzuki MR Wagon. The advantage of this strategy is amortized tooling costs, which means the vehicle can be produced at a higher margin of profit (or a lower price, or both).
Badge engineering occurs in theluxury-type market segments. An automobile manufacturer will use a model from its mainstream brand as a basis for a model under a premium marque by upgrading its features, technology, and/or styling. Along with visible cosmetic differences, premium models may also receive upgraded drivetrains.
An example of this is thatFord Motor Company marketed its mainstreamFord Fusion mid-size sedan as theLincoln MKZ; theFord Expedition SUV is sold as theLincoln Navigator. A more controversial example was theAston Martin Cygnet, a rebadged version of theToyota iQ city car (intended to comply with EU emissions regulations). While fitted with model-specific trim and a luggage set, the Cygnet nearly tripled the price of the iQ.[2][29][30] Alternatively,VW Group underFerdinand Piëch used the reverse of this in some circumstances, engineering the more luxurious model first and then remove features for models from less prestigious marques. Examples include theLamborghini Gallardo/Audi R8 and theAudi A4/Volkswagen Passat.
Along with rebadging and badge engineering, platform sharing is common throughout the automotive industry. Alongside a shared chassis (though unibody construction is nearly universal in cars and many light trucks), platform sharing also standardizes components such as drivetrain, suspensions, components, and other technologies. General Motors used theB platform for many of its non-Cadillac full-size vehicles (nearly exclusively from 1959 through 1985), while Chrysler used itsB platform for intermediates and itsC platform for (non-Imperial) full-size cars.
TheVolkswagen Group uses platform sharing as its business strategy to improve its profitability and growth.[31] For example,Audi uses components from their more pedestrian counterparts, sold as Volkswagen mass-market brands.[32] As an effort to place Audi as a "premium" marque, Volkswagen often introduces new technologies in Audi-branded cars before fitting them to mainstream products (such as theDirect-Shift Gearbox). In production, platform sharing is used extensively, with the modularMQB platform underpinning a range of vehicles from theAudi A1 to theVolkswagen Atlas. The previousD platform of the 2000s was used for theVolkswagen Phaeton andBentley Continental GT (built in steel) and theAudi A8 (built in aluminum).[33]
In the Japanese automotive industry, platform sharing has expanded model offerings in North America. While the initialLexus LS was developed specifically for the American market, the laterLexus ES has shared a platform (but not a body) with theToyota Camry[34] (since 2013, theToyota Avalon, itself also based on the Camry). Exclusive primarily to North America, Honda uses a common platform to produce the American version of the Odyssey minivan, also underpinning theHonda Pilot and Honda Passport SUVs, theAcura MDX CUV, and theHonda Ridgeline mid-size pickup truck.
Although intended to save development costs by spreading design and research costs over several vehicles, rebadging can also become problematic if not implemented properly. Using multiple car brands under a single-parent manufacturer can significantly increase selling costs, as each model line must be marketed separately, requiring a distinct dealership network. Inappropriate use of rebadging can also hurt overall sales by resulting in "cannibalism" between two or more brands owned by the same company by failing to develop a distinct image for each brand or by allowing themarket failure of one version of a model to carry over to its rebadged model counterparts.
Through the 2000s, theAmerican Big Three automakers reduced their brand footprint by closing or selling underperforming brands. After 2001, Chrysler discontinued itsPlymouth brand (following the closure ofEagle in 1998). In response to the late 2000s recession, Ford ended its ownership ofJaguar,Land Rover,Aston Martin, andVolvo Cars; in 2010, Mercury was closed by Ford. General Motors underwent several brand revisions; following the discontinuation of theGeo sub-brand of Chevrolet in 1997,Oldsmobile was closed after 2004 (the oldest American nameplate at the time). Following its 2009 bankruptcy, GM closed Pontiac, Saturn, and Hummer in 2010; Saab was sold (eventually leading to its demise). GM sold its European Opel and Vauxhall brands in 2017 to PSA (now Stellantis).
In response to the1973 oil crisis, General Motors expanded fuel-efficient offerings beyond its Chevrolet division, reintroducing compact cars to its Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac brands. Derived from the X-platformChevrolet Nova, thePontiac Ventura was introduced for the 1971 model year, with theBuick Apollo andOldsmobile Omega introduced for 1973. These four X-platform vehicles (also known as N-O-V-A from the first letters of their model names) were produced with identical bodies with divisional differences marked only with specific grille, lamp, and body trim variations.
To expand its footprint in the subcompact segment, the H-body Chevrolet Vega platform was used for the 1975 model year for newly styled variants sold as theChevrolet Monza,Buick Skyhawk, andOldsmobile Starfire followed by the 1976Pontiac Sunbird. Similarly, to the X-body vehicles, the H-body subcompacts shared common bodies across all four divisions with differing grille, lamp, and body trim variations.
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Prior to 1981, the majority of General Motors vehicles were produced with engines designed by their respective divisions. From 1981 onward, GM ended its policy of divisionally-developed engines, instead offering engines under a singular GM brand. As an exception, Cadillac offers division-exclusive engines (theNorthstar andBlackwing V8 engine families).
In 1981, GM lost a 1977 lawsuit related to consumers (who purchased 1977Oldsmobile Delta 88s equipped with a 350 cu in (5.7 L)Chevrolet small-block engine instead of the 350 cu in (5.7 L)Oldsmobile V8 engine).[35] At the time of production, GM had downsized its full-size model lines in preparation for another oil crisis and had increased production of V6 engines as the intended standard engine, underestimating consumer demand for Oldsmobile V8 engines. To accommodate the increased market demand, nearly 60% of Delta 88s were equipped with a Chevrolet 5.7 L V8 for 1977.[35] The lawsuit was filed by the state of Illinois, claiming GM falsely advertised the vehicles.[35] In 1981, GM settled the lawsuit with the vehicle buyers and discontinued their company-unique policy of division-specific engines.[36] Into the 1990s, GM advertising featured a disclaimer stating '"Oldsmobiles (or any other GM division) are equipped with engines manufactured by various GM divisions, subsidiaries and affiliates worldwide."'
Prior to the mid-1970s, the American luxury brands Lincoln and Cadillac offered model lines consisting entirely of full-size two-door and four-door sedans and full-size personal luxury cars. At the beginning of the decade, European automakers began to market their largest sedans as luxury vehicles in North America. Though theBMW Bavaria/3.0Si,Jaguar XJ6/XJ12, andMercedes-Benz S-Class (W116) were priced similar to the Cadillac Sedan de Ville and Lincoln Continental, the model lines were thousands of pounds lighter and multiple feet shorter in length (with only the hand-builtRolls-Royce Phantom V rivaling Lincoln and Cadillac in size). In response to both the 1973 oil crisis and to regain lost market share, both Cadillac and Lincoln introduced smaller vehicles for their brand. In one of the most controversial uses of rebranding in automotive history, both vehicles were derived from smaller GM and Ford divisional model ranges.
For the 1977 model year, Lincoln released theLincoln Versailles to match the debut of theCadillac Seville. In contrast with the Seville (sharing its chassis underpinnings both the Chevrolet Nova and the Chevrolet Camaro), the Versailles shared nearly its entire body with theMercury Monarch (itself a counterpart of theFord Granada); the model line also replaced the previousMercury Grand Monarch Ghia. Outsold by the Seville nearly three-to-one, the Versailles sold far under sales predictions and was discontinued early in the 1980 model year.
For 1982, Cadillac released theCadillac Cimarron to compete against compact European-brandexecutive sedans. The smallest Cadillac produced since the 1900s, the Cimarron used the chassis of theGM J-body four-door sedan. Developed and brought to market less than a year before the J-body was released, Cadillac was left with almost no time to distinguish the Cimarron from its divisional counterparts from Chevrolet, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac. Though sharing nearly its entire exterior with the four-door Chevrolet Cavalier, the Cimarron was priced nearly twice as high as its counterpart. Additionally, J-body vehicles from other divisions could be equipped nearly identically to the Cimarron for a lower cost. Though the model line closely matched its Buick Skyhawk and Oldsmobile Firenza counterparts in sales, the Cimarron was discontinued following the 1988 model year.
Though the Lincoln Versailles was largely forgotten after its 1980 discontinuation (its role superseded by the downsizing of the Lincoln Continental for 1982), the Cimarron would cause extensive damage to the Cadillac brand, as its market share declined by almost 50% from 1980 to 1998. As of current production, neither Lincoln nor Cadillac has marketed a compact-segment car. Through the use of rebranding, Lincoln produced the mid-sizeLincoln MKZ (sharing its doors with theFord Fusion; as part of its 2013 redesign, no other exterior panels); Cadillac rebranded theOpel Omega B as theCadillac Catera as its first mid-size car, but replaced it, eventually moving towards platform sharing with other divisions.
From 1982 until 1986, thefront-wheel driveA platform underpinned theChevrolet Celebrity,Cutlass Ciera,Pontiac 6000, andBuick Century. As part of their legacy, the A-bodies became enormously popular – as well as synonymous with one of GM's most transparent examples ofbadge engineering: they were simultaneously presented, almost indistinguishably, on the 22 August 1983 cover ofForbes magazine as examples of genericized uniformity, embarrassing the company and ultimately prompting GM to recommit to design leadership.[37][38][39]
In 1987, Chrysler Corporation acquiredAmerican Motors Corporation (AMC) fromRenault, leading to the exit of the latter company from the North American market. As part of the sale, Chrysler obtained the AMC dealership network, theAMC Eagle line of all-wheel drive cars, and the Jeep line of sport-utility vehicles and pickup trucks. For 1989, Chrysler established theJeep-Eagle Division in a strategy to both focus on Jeep and offer specialty cars differentiated from the established Chrysler lines.[40]
Following the retirement of theAMC Eagle Wagon in early 1988 (derived from the 1971 AMC Hornet), Eagle established its product line with the introduction of the 1988Premier andMedallion (developed by Renault prior to the sale of AMC). To expand the product range beyond the two sedans, Chrysler sourced vehicles from Mitsubishi, introducing the 1989Summit (Dodge/Plymouth Colt) and 1990Talon (Mitsubishi Eclipse). In contrast to the Jeep range, Eagle was marketed towards consumers interested in imported vehicles.[41]
For 1992, theEagle Vision full-size sedan replaced the Premier, becoming the first Eagle-brand vehicle developed by Chrysler. Positioned between the Dodge Intrepid and Chrysler Concorde, the Eagle Vision shared most exterior trim with the Concorde. It was the onlyChrysler LH car offered exclusively with a five-passenger interior.
Coinciding with the 1998 Daimler-Chrysler merger, the Eagle brand was discontinued; the singular Jeep brand was integrated as part of Chrysler or Dodge dealership networks. TheChrysler 300M was originally developed as a second generation of the Eagle Vision; following the discontinuation of Eagle, the vehicle continued into production as a Chrysler model, adopting a slightly restyled grille, Chrysler badging, and a Chrysler interior.
For the 1989 model year, Toyota and Nissan introduced the Lexus and Infiniti luxury brands in the United States (following the Acura luxury brand of Honda) with the all-new Lexus LS400 and Infiniti Q45 full-size sedans. Both brands expanded their model line for 1990, sourcing an existing model line from the Japanese market to rebrand as an entry-level offering.
TheLexus ES250 is a four-door sedan derived from the V20 Toyota Camry. Though visibly similar to the Camry introduced for 1987, the ES250 was a rebrandedToyota Camry Prominent/Vista; a model developed for Japan, the Prominent/Vista (dependent on sales network) is a four-door pillared hardtop sedan with a slightly lower roofline and restyled body panels. Along with the change to left-hand drive, the ES250 adopted an interior similar to the larger LS (along with similarly styled wheels and taillamps).
TheInfiniti M30 is a two-door notchback coupe derived from theNissan Leopard (a model never sold in North America). Along with the coupe, Infiniti sold the M30 as a two-door convertible (converted in the United States). With the exception of its badging and its dashboard (sourced from the left-hand driveNissan Skyline), the M30 differed from the Leopard primarily in its steering wheel location.
Intended largely as placeholder models, the ES250 and M30 were largely overshadowed by their companion flagship sedans. Following the end of the 1992 model year, both models were withdrawn (as their Japanese counterparts had ended their model cycles). For 1993, the ES250 was replaced by the ES300; while again sharing its body with a Japanese-market Toyota (Toyota Vista/Windom) and its chassis and engine with the Camry, the ES300 shared no resemblance to the American-market Camry. Infiniti moved away from a two-door coupe entirely, replacing the M30 with the four-doorJ30 (Nissan Leopard J Ferie in Japan).
TheRover CityRover, launched in 2003 as the last vehicle from theMG Rover Group, was a rebadgedTata Indica made in India. English motoring journalist George Fowler criticized the MG Rover Group, which was enjoying national sympathy from the British public as the last domestically owned automobile manufacturer, stating the CityRover was "a duplicitous attempt to 'save Rover' by flogging an Indian car on which the only Rover bits were the badges".[42]
A variant of rebadging is licensing models to be produced by other companies, typically in another country. The earliest such vehicle was theAustin 7 (1922–1939), designed and built byAustin Motor Company and licensed to other manufacturers across continents, which became their first-ever model. TheBantam in the US that would eventually build the firstJeep,BMW in Germany, andNissan in Japan.
Among the post-war cars, theFiat 124 designed and built byFiat, Italy was licensed to various other manufacturers from different countries. It became a dominant car in many Eastern Europe and West Asian countries.
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TheMorris Oxford Series IV built byMorris of England in 1955 would becomeHindustan Ambassador in India and was manufactured until 2014. Another example of this is the BritishHillman Hunter, which was license-built inIran as thePaykan, as well asNaza, building vehicles under license fromKia andPeugeot (Naza 206 Bestari).
A similar example of licensed badge-engineered products would be theVolga Siber, a rebadged version of theChrysler Sebring sedan and theDodge Stratus sedan produced in Russia from 2008 until 2010.
The Texas Motor Car Association had started building Elcars into their own Texan automobiles before the Great War
Volkswagen developed its MQB, or Modular Transverse Matrix, platform to improve manufacturing efficiency. Volkswagen, Audi, Seat, and Skoda models will be built on the MQB platform
The new Avalon shares powertrains and platforms with its little sister, the Toyota Camry, and its cousin, the Lexus ES 350.
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