Arazzia is asurprise attack against an enemy settlement. Although it primarily sought to obtain booty, historically the objectives of a razzia have been diverse: the capture ofslaves,ethnic orreligious cleansing, expansion of territory, and intimidation of the enemy.
Over time, its meaning has also been extended to other activities that bear certain similarities to these attacks, such aspolice raids or certain violent incursions by organized orparamilitary groups, such as those carried out in Brazilianfavelas, or in refugee camps during thewar inCentral Africa.
InWestern Europeanliterature it is known by the namerazzia, derived from theFrench wordrazzier (rezzou), which entered the French vocabulary after thecolonization of Algeria,[1] and which is no more than atransliteration of the colloquial Arabic wordghazya.[2]
In theIberian Peninsula, the Muslim razzias received the name ofaceifas, from the Arabical-ṣayfa: "Saracen war expedition that takes place in summer".
The Arabic nameṣayfa is etymologically related toṣayf (summer) and initially meant "harvest", but over time it was used as "military expedition", due to the "harvest" of goods in the plundering, and that it also used to be carried out in summer period.
The first important razzias against peninsular Christian territory began after the defeat ofBermudo I by theAndalusianHisham I in thebattle of Burbia (791), even sacking the city ofOviedo in794.
TheMoorish aceifas were interrupted with the ascent to the Asturian throne ofAlfonso IIthe Chaste and the Christian victory in thebattle of Lutos, giving rise in response to a series of Christian razzias, such as the one carried out in798 againstLisbon.
Internal strife in theemirate of Cordoba interrupted the raids, at least intensively, until the accession to the throne ofAbderraman II. After putting an end to his uncleAbdallah's pretensions to the throne and putting down a revolt in Murcia, he organized annual aceifas against the Christians (at their most intense, up to three were organized in the same year). Most were directed againstAlava and, especially,Galicia, which was the most vulnerable region of theKingdom of Asturias. Despite this, there was no lack of attacks against Ausona (Vich),Barcelona,Girona and evenNarbonne in the expeditions of the years828,840 and850.
In the Malikí law there was a precept on how the holy war was to be carried out:
The holy war must be carried out every year, with a sufficient military force, towards the most exposed side. It is a duty of solidarity (some contributing with their persons, others with their goods) that is imposed on every free, pubescent and valid man, even under the direction of an iniquitous leader.[3] — Fueros of theCuenca-Teruel family
This precept was fulfilled with zeal byAlmanzor. In the year981, whenHisham II delegated his powers to the warlord, who was namedal-Mansūr bi-l-Lah ("The Victorious of God"), he organized up to five expeditions in Christian lands.
At his death, after thebattle of Calatañazor (1002), Almanzor left a terrible legacy: up to 52 victorious military campaigns to the Christian kingdoms,[4] of which the best known are the aceifas organized toBarcelona (985) andSantiago de Compostela (997), where according to legend he made Christian slaves carry the bells of thecathedral toCordoba. But a large number of Christian monasteries such asSan Millán de Suso, Portuguese cities, or the capitals of the Christian kingdoms ofPamplona andLeón, which he sacked up to four times, were not spared either.[5]
During theAlmoravid andAlmohad domination, aceifas were directed both to Christian and Muslim territory. The Almoravids raided all of North Africa, reaching as far asGhana. The fanaticism of these new invaders caused some Taifa kings to ally with the Christian kings of the north, also becoming targets of the summer aceifas.
The last important aceifas in peninsular territory would take place shortly after thebattle of Alarcos, in1198 toMadrid and in1199 toGuadalajara. Thebattle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) would definitively ruin the Almohad military power. Al-Andalus would never again go on the offensive.
Ghazi (Arabic: غازى) is an Arabic word in origin, derived fromghazā (contraction for*ghazawa) = "raided" or "waged war", adopted into other languages such as Turkish to designate those Muslims who have sworn to fight non-believers in theIslamic religion. In this sense, it is essentially equivalent toMujahid: "one who wages jihad", commonly known as "holy war".
Al-Mansur (977-1002) established a military dictatorship based on warlike successes, that were acquiring contents of holy war against the Christians. He developed a policy of military actions against the Christian kingdoms, more than 50razzias, in which, in addition to economic resources, they sought to punish the infidels and to strengthen their own prestige. The destruction of Barcelona (985 AD) and Santiago (997 AD) were the most devastating. — Historia, Crisol ed.Vicens Vives p.28
For theghāzīs on their marches, it was a religious duty to raze the countries of the infidels who resisted Islam, and force them into submission. — Cambridge. Historia del Islam (in Spanish), p. 283
Once the conquest was over, thelegal scholars established that theCaliph should organize expeditions into enemy territory at least once a year to keep the spirit ofjihad alive. — Peters,La Yihad en el Islam Clásico y Moderno: Antología, p. 3
Theghāzī warrior dates back to at leastPre-Islamic Arabia, when he appears as anything from an ideological warrior, such as the forces underAl-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir, tomercenaries who specialise in plunderingByzantine,Sassanian, andSouthern Arabian settlements.
Following theIslamic Conquest of Persia,Bedouin razzia tactics were copied by thePersians. Subsequently, as many as 20,000ghazi took part in theIndian campaigns ofMahmud of Gazni.
Theghāzī way of life was based on plunder, so in times of peace they engaged inbanditry andsedition. They were organized into guilds that attracted adventurers,zealots, and political and religious dissidents of all ethnicities. Soldiers ofTurkish descent predominated, especially after the acquisition ofMamluks,Turkishslaves, and guard corps of the caliphs andamirs for theghāzī ranks. Some of them would climb to control positions of military and eventually political power in various Muslim states.
In the west, Turkishghāzīs regularly raided along theByzantinefrontier, finding in theGreek andArmenianakritoi their nemesis. After thebattle of Manzikert, these raids intensified, while theghāzī guilds grouped together to form fraternities similar to Christianmilitary orders. They adopted as their emblems the white cap and the club. The rise of theghāzī organizations occurred during theMongol conquest, as a result of which many fled toAnatolia fromPersia andTurkestan.
The organization of these groups was fluid, reflecting their popular character.Ghāzī warriors could rise in the hierarchy by gaining prestige with a particularamir, similar to thecondottieri of Italian mercenary bands. From the territory conquered inAnatolia during theghazw emerged theOttoman Empire. Tradition has it that its founder,Osman I, was aghāzī who was inspired bysheikh Ede Bali.
In a later period of Islamic history, the honorific titleghāzī was adopted by those Muslim leaders who showed some success in extending the frontiers of Islam. Eventually this title became exclusive, similar to how theRoman titleImperator became the exclusive property of the supreme leader of theRoman state and his family.
TheOttomans were probably the first in this practice, so the institution ofghazw dates back to the beginnings of their state.
By the beginning of Ottoman rule, it had become a title of honor and synonymous with leadership. In a1337 inscription (concerning the construction of theBursamosque),Orhan, second in the Ottoman dynasty, is described as "Sultan, son of the Sultan of the Gazis, Gazi son of Gazi, martial lord of the horizons." The Ottoman poet Ahmedi, circa1402, defines a Gazi as:
Instrument of thereligion of God, a servant of God who cleanses the earth ofpolytheistic[6] filth, the sword of God. — Lewis, ''Lenguaje Político del Islam'', págs. 147-148, nota 8
The first nine Ottoman leaders used the word "Ghazi" as part of their title, and often their successors. It never became a formal title, unlikeSultan ul-Muyahidin, used by SultanMurad Khan II Khojā Ghazi, sixth ruler of theHouse of Osman (1421-1451), whose full title was'Abu'l Hayrat, Sultan ul-Muyahidin, Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, and of the cities of Adrianople and Philippopolis.
As a result of the political legitimacy granted to the one holding this title, Muslim leaders competed with each other for preeminence in theghāziya. Generally, the Ottoman sultans were recognized for their excellence over the rest:
The termGhazi was also used as an honorific title, usually translated as "the Victorious", by high-ranking officers, who distinguished themselves in the field against non-Muslim enemies; thus, it was awarded to General Osman Pasha after his successful defense ofPlevna inBulgaria. It was also assigned to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, despite the fact that he was a secular politician.
Two Muslim leaders fromAfghanistan andHyderabad personally used the title Padshah-i-Ghazi.
When executed in the context of Islamic jihad, the function of the razzia was to weaken the enemy's defenses in preparation for his eventual conquest andsubjugation. Since the typical razzia was not large enough to achieve military or territorial objectives, it usually involved surprise attacks on poorly defended targets (e.g. villages) with the intention of terrorizing and demoralizing their inhabitants and destroying supplies that might supply the enemy. Islamic rules clearly defined who should go to war and who was exempted from such responsibility:
Are exempted from making the holy war the sick, impuberal, insane, blind and lame, women, individuals without sufficient resources required by the needs of war (weapons, mounts, supplies, etc.), slaves, debtors and, finally, those to whom the father and mother (or one of them) refuse permission to go; but the prohibition of a grandfather is not sufficient to prevent the departure. The paternal refusal prevents, likewise, a maritime or dangerous voyage (for commercial purposes), and when the prohibition emanates from an infidel father it must be respected as if it came from a faithful, if it is other than holy war.[7]
Although the rules of Islamic warfare forbade taking the lives of non-combatants such as women,monastics andserfs, it was possible to plunder or destroy their property that they do not depend on for subsistence if they do not accept the first two options of eitherconverting to Islam, or paying theJizya tax.
The infidels will be invited to embrace Islam, but if after three days the infidels do not accept it, they will be ordered to pay the legal capitulation (yizya); in case they refuse, then they are to be fought and may be annihilated, except women (unless they have participated in the fight against the Muslims), children, the mentally weak, the old, the physically handicapped, the blind and monks who live retired in convents or hermitages. All those whom the law orders to be pardoned shall be left, from what they possess, what is necessary for subsistence.[7]
In the country of infidels the imam can apply the penalties determined by the law (hadd) 33. One can destroy the dwellings, cut and burn the palms (trees), if that causes harm to the infidels or there is no hope of remaining as owner. Destruction, according toIbn Rusd, is then recommended, as it is recommended to abstain if the hope of remaining exists.[7]
One of the main sources that tell us about the development of a traditional razzia are the medieval Islamicjurists, whose discussions of what was and was not permitted in such actions in the course of war reveal some of the practices of this institution. One of the most important is theAndalusianAverroes, in his workBida-yat al-Mujtahid wa-Niha-yat al-Muqtasid.[citation needed]
Maghāzī, literally meaning "campaigns", is a term often used inIslamic literature to represent the military campaigns conducted byMuhammad following theHijrah. The annals of these campaigns, often reflected as preemptive measures or attacks against invaders, which entailed the traditional plunder, constitute their own genre of prophetic biography within Islamic literature, distinctive of this era. A famous example of this genre isal-Waqidi'sMaghāzī.
Some of these well-known razzias areNight of Broken Glass, carried out by theGestapo inGermany, or TheSS raid on theYugoslav city ofŽabalj (present-daySerbia)[8].
During theSecond Chechen War,Chechnya announced thegazawat againstRussia, as a propaganda measure and to gain the support of the Islamic population, the majority in the country.
Other examples of current razzias are the death squad raids in the Brazilianfavelas, or the paramilitary incursions during thewar inCentral Africa. The multiple attacks byColombianguerrilla groups on Colombian army squads and vice versa could also be considered as such.
