Rapeseed (Brassica napus subsp.napus), also known asrape andoilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the familyBrassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of mildly toxicerucic acid.[2] The term "canola" denotes a group of rapeseedcultivars that were bred to have very low levels oferucic acid and which are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source ofvegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.[3][4]
Brassica napus grows to 100 centimetres (39 inches) in height with hairless, fleshy,pinnatifid andglaucous lower leaves[5][6][7] which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have nopetioles.[8]
Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about 17 millimetres (3⁄4 in) across.[6] They are radial and consist of fourpetals in a typical cross-form, alternating with foursepals. They have indeterminateracemose flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateralstamens with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.[9]
The rapeseed pods are green and elongatedsiliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow onpedicels1 to 3 cm (3⁄8 to1+3⁄16 in) long, and can range from 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) in length.[8] Each pod has twocompartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops.[10] The seeds are round and have a diameter of1.5 to 3 mm (1⁄16 to1⁄8 in). They have a reticulate surface texture,[8] and are black and hard at maturity.[10]
B. napus can be distinguished fromB. nigra by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and fromB. rapa by its smaller petals which are less than13 mm (1⁄2 in) across.[6]
ThespeciesBrassica napus belongs to the flowering plant familyBrassicaceae. Rapeseed is asubspecies with theautonymB. napus subsp.napus.[11] It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.[12] Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape formvariety (B. napus var.pabularia) which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.[13][12] The second subspecies ofB. napus isB. napussubsp. rapifera (also subsp.napobrassica; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).[14][15]
Crops from the genusBrassica, including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by humankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.[12]
Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement ofvernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in aleaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.[9]
In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such aswheat andbarley, and break crops such aspeas andbeans. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another.[20] Winter rape is less susceptible tocrop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests.[21]
Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately aftergermination.[9]
Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers apH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance ofsoil salinity.[22] It is predominantly awind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields whenbee-pollinated,[23] almost double the final yield[24] but the effect is cultivar dependent.[25] It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generatesN2O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N2O.[26]
Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients - in particular, its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops. Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production.[27][28] Among the micronutrients, special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given toboron,[29]manganese[30] andmolybdenum.[31]
The cultivatable range for rapeseed is expected to decrease due to climate change. The quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil, is also expected to decrease substantially.[32] Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties ofBrassica for cultivation.[32]
The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop arecanker, light leaf spot (Pyrenopeziza brassicae),alternaria- andsclerotinia- stem rots. Canker causesleaf spotting, and prematureripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. Aconazole- ortriazole- fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control.[33] Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia,verticillium wilt andclubroot.[20]
Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects,nematodes,slugs as well aswood pigeons.[37] The brassica pod midge (Dasineura brassicae), cabbage seed weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis), cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus), cabbage stem flea beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephala), rape stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus napi) andpollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe.[38] The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Syntheticpyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use ofprophylactic insecticides in many countries.[33]Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.[37]
In 1973, Canadianagricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promotecanola consumption.[42] Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of theCanola Council of Canada, as "canola".[43][44] Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 μmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."[44][45]In the 1980s decreasing atmospheric sulphur inputs to Northern European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the newly bred low-glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly specific symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops[46] which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").[47]
The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific features of the genetically altered 00-varieties.[48]
Following the European Parliament'sTransport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.[24]
Bayer Cropscience, in collaboration withBGI-Shenzhen, China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome ofB. napus and its constituent genomes present inB. rapa andB. oleracea in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed speciesB. napus has been sequenced by theMultinationalBrassica Genome Project.[49]
Agenetically modified variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998, engineered forglyphosate tolerance, and is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.[50]
TheMonsanto companygenetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of itsherbicide,Roundup. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing theRoundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting,Roundup Readyvolunteers were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.[51]
In a closely followed legal battle, theSupreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto'spatent infringement claim for unlicensed growing ofRoundup Ready in its 2004 ruling onMonsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection ofgenetically modified crops. In March 2008, anout-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.[51]
TheFood and Agriculture Organization reports global production of 36 million metric tons (40 million short tons; 35 million long tons) in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated 58.4 million metric tons (64.4 million short tons; 57.5 million long tons) in the 2010–2011 season.[52]
Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production ofbiodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to 6 million metric tons (6.6 million short tons; 5.9 million long tons) in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.[53]
Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, andbiodiesel. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, aftersoybean andpalm oil.[3] It is the world's second-leading source ofprotein meal after soybean.[4]
Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels oferucic acid, which is damaging tocardiac muscle of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.[55] Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid.[56] Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has beengenerally recognized as safe by theUnited States Food and Drug Administration.[57] Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US[57] and 2% in the EU,[58] with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in humaninfants.[57][59]
Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellentsilage crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly forcattle feeding, but is also used forpigs andpoultry.[4] However, the high levels ofglucosinolates, sinapine, and phytic acid in the seed cake of rapeseed cause detrimental health effects to animals, reduce digestibility of certain nutrients, reduce palatability, and contribute to eutrophication of waterways.[60][61][62] In China, rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed.[63]
Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either asbiodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fueldiesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,[citation needed] partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lowergel point than most other vegetable oils.
Because of anticipated changes to climate, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.[32]
Rapeseed is also used as acover crop in the US during the winter as it preventssoil erosion, produces large amounts ofbiomass, suppresses weeds and can improve soiltilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.[22]
Rapeseed has a highmelliferous potential (produces substances that can be collected by insects) and is a main forage crop forhoneybees.[24] Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly.[64] The low fructose-to-glucose ratio inmonofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in thehoneycomb, forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped.[24]
As abiolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.[65] Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive.[66]
Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containingradionuclides that contaminated the soil after theChernobyl disaster[67][68] as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.[67]
^Chhikara, S.; Chaudhury, D.; Dhankher, O.; Jaiwal, P. (2012). "Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenicBrassica juncea provides protection againstAlternaria brassicae".Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture.108:83–89.doi:10.1007/s11240-011-0015-7.S2CID255112076.
^[Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]
^[Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]
Callihan, Robert H.; Brennan, Jeff; Miller, Tim; Brown, Jack; Moore, Mary (2000).Mustards in Mustards: Guide to Identification of Canola, Mustard, Rapeseed and Related Weeds.University of Idaho.
Lindström, Sandra A. M.; Herbertsson, Lina; Rundlöf, Maj; Smith, Henrik G.; Bommarco, Riccardo (9 December 2015). "Large-scale pollination experiment demonstrates the importance of insect pollination in winter oilseed rape".Oecologia.180 (3):759–769.doi:10.1007/s00442-015-3517-x.ISSN0029-8549.PMID26650584.S2CID17513467.
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