| Ramu | |
|---|---|
| Keram and Ramu Rivers | |
| Geographic distribution | Ramu andKeram watersheds, WesternMadang Province and EasternEast Sepik Province, NorthernPapua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Ramu–Lower Sepik or a primarylanguage family |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | ramu1234 (reduced) |
TheRamu languages are afamily of some thirty languages of NorthernPapua New Guinea. They were identified as a family byJohn Z'graggen in 1971 and linked with theSepik languages byDonald Laycock two years later.Malcolm Ross (2005) classifies them as one branch of aRamu – Lower Sepik language family. Z'graggen had included theYuat languages, but that now seems doubtful.
With no comprehensive grammar yet available for any of the Ramu languages, the Ramu group remains one of the most poorly documented language groups in theSepik-Ramu basin.[1]
The small families listed below inboldface are clearly valid units. The first five, sometimes classified together asLower Ramu, are relatable through lexical data, so their relationship is widely accepted.[2]
Languages of the Ottilien family share plural morphology withNor–Pondo.
| Ramu | |
Laycock (1973) included theArafundi family, apparently impressionistically, but Arafundi is poorly known. Ross (2005) retains it in Ramu without comment, but Foley (2005) and Usher reject inclusion. Laycock (1973) also includes thePiawi languages as a branch, but Ross (2005), Foley (2005) and Usher all reject their inclusion.
Usher breaks up the Grass/Keram family. His classification of Ramu (with both his own and traditional names) as of 2018 is as follows:[3]
Foley (2018) provides the following classification, with 5 main branches recognized.[1]
Tamolan languages andTangu languages are sparsely documented, and are mostly attested by short word lists.[1]
Grass languages are lexically divergent, sharing very few cognates with the other Ramu languages, withBanaro andAp Ma sharing almost none. Foley (2018: 205) leaves open the possibility of Grass being a third branch of the Lower Sepik-Ramu family, withLower Sepik and Ramu beingsister branches.
The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for Proto-Ramu are:
| I | *aŋko, *ni | we two | *a-ŋk-a | we | *ai, *nai, *a-ni, *na-ni |
| thou | *un, *nu | you two | *o-ŋk-oa, *no-ŋk-oa | you | *ne, *u-ni, *nu-ni |
| s/he | *man | they two | *mani-ŋk ? | they | *mə, *nda, *manda |
However,Grass languages have the innovations *ɲi ‘1SG’ and *re ‘3SG’.[1]
Proto-Ramu forms that are widespread across the family (except for theGrass languages) are:[1]
| gloss | proto-Ramu |
|---|---|
| ‘bird’ | *ŋgwarak |
| ‘name’ | *v/ɣi |
| ‘ear’ | *kwar |
| ‘tooth’ | *nda(r) |
| ‘leaf’ | *rapar |
| ‘bone’ | *(a)gar |
| ‘eat’ | *am(b) |
| ‘I’ | *(ŋ)go |
| ‘you (SG)’ | *nu |
| ‘dative case marker’ | *mV |
Foley also reconstructs 7 vowels for proto-Ramu:[1]
| *i | *ɨ | *u |
| *e | *ə | *o |
| *a |
This 7-vowel system is also typical ofNdu languages.[1]