Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th–5th to 5th–4th century BCE,[5][6] and later stages extend up to the 3rd century CE,[6] although the original date of composition is unknown. It is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000verses (mostly set in theShloka/Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into sevenkāṇḍa (chapters). It belongs to the genre ofItihasa, narratives of past events (purāvṛtta), interspersed with teachings onthe goals of human life.
TheRamayana was an important influence on laterSanskrit poetry and theHindu life and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, bothHindu andBuddhist. Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (fromSanskrit:रामराज्य,romanized: Rāmarājya, a utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society/realm.
The nameRāmāyaṇa is composed of two words,Rāma andayaṇa "travel, journey", with the grammaticalinternal sandhi "joining" of the final shorta inRāma and the initial shorta inayana to the longer formā.[12]Rāma, the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In theAtharvaveda, it means "dark-coloured or black" and is related to the wordrātri "the darkness or stillness of night". The other meaning, which can be found in theMahabharata, is "pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful".[13][14] Thus,Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's journey".[15]
Scholarly estimates of the earliest stage of the available text range from the 7th–5th to 5th–4th centuries BCE,[16][6] with later stages extending to the 3rd century CE.[6] According toRobert P. Goldman (1984), the oldest parts of theRamayana date to the early7th century BCE.[17] The core parts, states Goldman, cannot have been composed later than the 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative neither mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence ofMagadha (which rose to prominence in the 7th century BCE). The text also mentionsAyodhya as the capital ofKosala, rather than its later name of Saketa or its successor capital ofShravasti.[18] In terms of narrative time, the action of theRamayana predates theMahabharata.Goldman & Sutherland Goldman (2022) consider the Ramayana's oldest surviving version was composed around 500 BCE.[19]
Books two to six are the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Balakanda andUttara Kanda, respectively) consider to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus.[20]
TheRamayana belongs to the genre ofItihasa, narratives of past events (purāvṛtta), which includes the epicsMahabharata andRamayana, and thePuranas. The genre also includes teachings onthe goals of human life. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and king.[21] Like theMahabharata,Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrativeallegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements.[b]
In its extant form, Valmiki'sRamayana is an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into sevenkāṇḍas (Bālakāṇḍa, Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa,Sundarākāṇḍa, Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters).[25][26] It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems ever written.[27]
TheRamayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholarRobert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). ScholarRomesh Chunder Dutt writes that "theRamayana, like theMahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."
There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes of Valmiki'sRamayana (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in the main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki.[25] Both of these two kāndas are absent in the oldest manuscript.[28]
Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the way the positions of women andShudras are depicted shows that the Uttara Kanda is a later insertion.
Since Rama was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha, the killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana.[29]
The marriage of the four sons of Dasharatha to the four daughters of Siradhvaja Janaka and Kushadhvaja. Rama and Sita, Lakshmana and Urmila, Bharata and Mandavi and Shatrughna with Shrutakirti. Folio from the Shnagri Ramayana, early 18th-century.National Museum, New Delhi
The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in the world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre calledśloka, in which he is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of King Rāma. Then the main narrative begins.[30]
Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have a son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demonRāvaṇa. As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā.[30]
When Rāma was 16 years old, ther̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha seeking help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroyTāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of the landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes.[30]
The party then decides to attend KingJanaka's sacrifice in the kingdom ofMithilā, who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughterSītā, whom he found in the earth while plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string the bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity inMithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā.[30]
Rama leaving for fourteen years of exile from Ayodhya
After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy regarding this, but was later on provoked byMantharā, a wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had granted to her. Kaikeyī demandsRāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata.
The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him into exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest.
After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in the forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf of his brother.[31]
In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the riverGodāvari, where they build cottages and live off the land. One day, in thePañcavati forest they are visited by arākṣasī namedŚurpaṇakhā, sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothersKhara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas.
When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with the aid of therakṣasaMārīca. Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard.
After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa.[32]
Jatāyu, avulture, tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard ofrakṣasīs. Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meetKabandha and the asceticŚabarī, who directs them to Sugriva and Hanuman.
A stone bas-relief at Banteay Srei inCambodia depicts the combat betweenVali andSugriva (middle). To the right, Rama fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying.
Kishkindha Kanda is set in the land ofVānaras (Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans.[33] Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent ofSugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brotherVāli thus regaining the kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā.
However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queenTārā, (wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from the north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership ofAṅgada and Hanumān learns from a vulture namedSampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā.
Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.
Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account ofHanumān's heroics. After learning about Sītā, Hanumān assumes a gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets many challenges like facing aGandharva Kanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain namedMaināka who offers Hanuman assistance and a place to rest. Hanumān refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā.
After entering Lankā, he finds a demon,Lankini, who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier a vision or warning from the gods, therefore, knows that Lankā's end is near if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in the Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry him.
Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as a sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as a token to prove that she is still alive.
Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and telling him about Sītā's location and desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa urging him to release Sīta. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps across the rooftops , sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news.
TheBattle at Lanka, Ramayana bySahibdin. It depicts the vānara army of Rāma (top left) fightingRāvaṇa the demon-king ofLankā to save Rāma's kidnapped wife, Sītā. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon generalTriṣira, in the bottom left. Triṣira is beheaded by Hanumān, the vānara companion of Rāma.
Also known asLankā Kāṇḍa, this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brotherVibhiṣaṇa. The vānaras namedNala andNīla construct theRama Setu.[34]
The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's sonMeghanāda hurls a powerful weapon at Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic form and flies from Lankā to theHimalayas. Upon reaching, Hanumān is unable to identify thesanjeevani herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installsVibhishaṇa on the throne of Lanka.
On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over the enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa".[35] However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened.So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays toAgni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from the burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity.[36] Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode ofAgni Pariksha varies in the versions ofRamāyaṇa by Valmiki andTulsidas. InTulsidas'sRamcharitmanas, Sītā was under the protection of Agni (seeMāyā Sītā) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and glorify Rama as the incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life.
After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival.Deepavali is the day considered that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā was celebrated with his coronation. It is calledRāma pattabhisheka. There are mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva, Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān.Rāma was so thankful toVibhisaṇa and wanted to give him a great gift.Rāma gave hisAradhana Devata (Sri Ranganathaswamy) toVibhishana as a gift.[37][better source needed] Rama's rule itself wasRāma rājya described to be a just and fair rule.[38] It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness withdiyas, and the festival ofDeepavali is connected with Rāma's return.[39][better source needed]
Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and the death ofShambuka, and together with Bala Kanda[40] it is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda.[41]
This kanda narrates Rama's reign inAyodhya, the birth ofLava andKusha, theAshvamedhayajna, and the last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is calledRama-Rajya (a place where the common folk are happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded to the throne after Rama.
The epic story ofRamyana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.A relief with part of the Ramayana epic, shows Rama killed the golden deer that turn out to be the demonMaricha in disguise.Prambanan Trimurti temple nearYogyakarta,Java,Indonesia
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of theRamayana survive. In particular, theRamayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based onRamayana inIndonesia,Cambodia,Philippines,Thailand,Malaysia,Laos,Vietnam andMaldives.
There are diverse regional versions of theRamayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. AWest Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents the epic without two of its kandas.
The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the 14th-15th centurySaptakanda Ramayana inAssamese byMadhava Kandali. Valmiki'sRamayana inspiredSri Ramacharit Manas byTulsidas in 1576, an epic inAwadhiHindi with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that ofbhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known asTulsi-krita Ramayana.Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of theRamayana in the 17th century.[citation needed]Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother,Hamida Banu Begum. Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative.[42][43]
There is a sub-plot to theRamayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures ofAhiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddessKali.Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed toValmiki – intended as a supplementary to the originalValmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case toRavana's wife,Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in theMahakali form.
TheGondi people have their own version of the Ramayana known as theGond Ramayani, derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride.[45]
InAdiya Ramayana, an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the Adiya tribe ofWayanad, Sita is an Adiya woman hailing fromPulpally in Wayanad.[46] A notable difference in the version is that the Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan, Mathappan etc. interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha.[46][47]
Even beforeKambar wrote theRamavataram in Tamil in the 12th century CE, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in theSangam literature ofAkanaṉūṟu (dated 1st century BCE)[48] andPurananuru (dated 300 BC),[49][50] the twin epics ofSilappatikaram (dated 2nd century CE)[51] andManimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18),[52][53][54] and theAlvar literature ofKulasekhara Alvar,Thirumangai Alvar,Andal andNammalvar (dated between 5th and 10th centuries CE).[55] Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva.
In the Buddhist variant of theRamayana (Dasaratha Jataka), Dasharatha was king ofBenares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile.
After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is noRavana in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However,Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, theLankavatara Sutra.
In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous birth of theBuddha, and Sita as previous birth ofYasodharā (Rahula-Mata).
Rama,Lakshmana andRavana are the eighth Baldeva, Vasudeva andPrativasudeva respectively.Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted toBalarama andKrishna in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to thejinacharitra (lives of jinas) byAcharya Bhadrabahu (3d–4th century BCE).
In the Jain epic ofRamayana, it is not Rama who kills Ravana as told in the Hindu version. Perhaps this is because Rama, a liberated Jain Self in his last life, is unwilling to kill.[60] Instead, it is Lakshmana who kills Ravana (as Vasudeva killes Prativasudeva).[60] In the end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes aJain monk and attainsmoksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go toHell. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According toJain texts, Ravana will be the futureTirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.
The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki'sRamayana. Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama.
Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven as Indra. Rama, after Lakshman's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attainsKevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in thefourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be hisGanadhara.
There are several Indonesian adaptations of Ramayana, including the JavaneseKakawin Ramayana[61][62] and BalineseRamakavaca. The first half ofKakawin Ramayana is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different. One of the recognizable modifications is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian demigod,Semar, and his sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant fourPunokawan or "clown servants".[63]
Kakawin Ramayana is believed to have been written inCentral Java circa 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in theMataram Kingdom.[63] The JavaneseKakawin Ramayana is not based on Valmiki's epic, which was then the most famous version of Rama's story, but based onRavanavadha or the "Ravana massacre," which is the sixth or seventh century poem by Indian poet Bhattikavya.[64]
Kakawin Ramayana was further developed on the neighboring island ofBali becoming the BalineseRamakavaca. The bas-reliefs ofRamayana andKrishnayana scenes are carved on balustrades of the 9th centuryPrambanan temple inYogyakarta,[65] as well as in the 14th centuryPenataran temple inEast Java.[66] InIndonesia, the Ramayana is a deeply ingrained aspect of the culture, especially amongJavanese,Balinese andSundanese people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and entertainment, for example inwayang and traditional dances.[67]
TheBalinesekecak dance for example, retells the story of the Ramayana, with dancers playing the roles of Rama, Sita, Lakhsmana, Jatayu, Hanuman, Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Indrajit surrounded by a troupe of over 50 bare-chested men who serve as the chorus chanting "cak". The performance also includes a fire show to describe the burning of Lanka by Hanuman.[68] InYogyakarta, theWayang WongJavanese dance also retells the Ramayana. One example of a dance production of the Ramayana in Java is theRamayana Ballet performed on the Trimurti Prambanan open air stage, with dozens of actors and the three main prasad spires of thePrambanan Hindu temple as a backdrop.[69]
TheMaharadia Lawana, an epic poem of theMaranao people of thePhilippines, has been regarded as an indigenized version of the Ramayana since it was documented and translated into English by ProfessorJuan R. Francisco and Nagasura Madale in 1968.[73][74] The poem, which had not been written down before Francisco and Madale's translation,[73] narrates the adventures of the monkey-king, Maharadia Lawana, to whom the Gods have granted immortality.[75]
Francisco, an indologist from theUniversity of the Philippines Manila, believed that theRamayana narrative arrived in the Philippines some time between the 17th to 19th centuries, via interactions with Javanese and Malaysian cultures which traded extensively with India.[76]
By the time it was documented in the 1960s, the character names, place names, and the precise episodes and events in Maharadia Lawana's narrative already had some notable differences from those of theRamayana. Francisco believed that this was a sign of "indigenization", and suggested that some changes had already been introduced in Malaysia and Java even before the story was heard by the Maranao, and that upon reaching the Maranao homeland, the story was "further indigenized to suit Philippine cultural perspectives and orientations."[77]
Thailand's popular national epicRamakien (Thai:รามเกียรติ์, fromrāmakīrti, 'glory of Ram') is derived from the Hindu epic. InRamakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakan andmontho).Vibhishana (phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts the death of Ravana from Sita's horoscope. Ravana throws her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (chanok).[78]
While the main story is identical to that ofRamayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration atWat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.
Acritical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental Institute atMaharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region.[79] An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of theUniversity of California, Berkeley.[80]
There are around thirty three commentaries on the Ramayana.[81] Some of the commentaries on the Ramayana include Mahesvara Tirtha'stattvadīpa (also known astattvadīpika), Govindaraja'sbhūṣaṇa (also known asgovindarājīyam), Sivasahaya'sśiromaṇi, Mahadeva Yogi'samṛtakaṭaka, Ramanuja'srāmānujīyam, Ahobala'staniclōkī andtilaka by Nagoji Bhatta or Ramavarma.[82] The three commentariestilaka,bhūṣaṇa andśiromaṇi are known asṭīkātraya (i.e. commentary trio) and are more popular.[83]
The painting by theIndonesian (Balinese) artist,Ida Bagus Made Togog depicts the episode from the Ramayana about the Monkey Kings ofSugriva andVali; The Killing of Vali.Rama depicted as a crowned figure with a bow and arrow.
One of the most important literary works ofancient India, theRamayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in theIndian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notablyKambaramayanam byTamil poetKambar of the 12th century,Telugu languageMolla Ramayanam by poetMolla andRanganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th-centuryKannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana and 15th-centuryBengali poetKrittibas Ojha'sKrittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th-centuryAwadhi version,Ramcharitmanas, written byTulsidas.
TheRamayana became popular inSoutheast Asia from the 8th century onward and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of theRamayana, known asRamlila, take place all acrossIndia and in many places across the globe within theIndian diaspora.
Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, notably by theIndonesian (Balinese) artists such as I Gusti Dohkar (before 1938), I Dewa Poetoe Soegih, I Dewa Gedé Raka Poedja,Ida Bagus Made Togog before 1948 period. Their paintings are currently in the National Museum of World Cultures collections ofTropenmuseum inAmsterdam,Netherlands. Malaysian artistSyed Thajudeen also depictedRamayana in 1972. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.
Multiple modern,English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namelyRam Chandra Series byAmish Tripathi,Ramayana Series byAshok Banker and a mythopoetic novel,Asura: Tale of the Vanquished byAnand Neelakantan. Another Indian author,Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titledSita,The Book Of Ram andHanuman's Ramayan. A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon theRamayana.[87]Quotes from theRamayana are used in "Live Gloriously", the main theme for the video gameCivilization VII.
One of the best known[citation needed]Ramayana plays is Gopal Sharman'sThe Ramayana, a contemporary interpretation in English, of the great epic based on the ValmikiRamayana. The play has had more than 3,000 performances all over the world, mostly as a one-woman performance by actressJalabala Vaidya, wife of the playwright Gopal Sharman.The Ramayana has been performed on Broadway, London's West End, United Nations Headquarters, the Smithsonian Institution among other international venue and in more than 35 cities and towns in India.[citation needed]
Starting in 1978 and under the supervision ofBaba Hari Dass,Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California.[88]
In the Philippines, a jazz ballet production was produced in the 1970s entitled "Rama at Sita" (Rama and Sita). The production was a result of a collaboration of four National Artists, Bienvenido Lumbera's libretto (National Artist for Literature), production design by Salvador Bernal (National Artist for Stage Design), music by Ryan Cayabyab (National Artist for Music) and choreography by Alice Reyes (National Artist for Dance).[89]
Ramayana has had a profound influence on India and Indians across the geographical and historical space. Rampur is the most common name for villages and towns across the nation particularly UP, Bihar and West Bengal.[90] It is so common that people have been using Ram Ram as a greeting to each other.[91][92]
Buck's version is a modern retelling that aims to make the story accessible to contemporary readers.
Raghunathan, N. (1981).Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam. Madras: Vighneswara Publishing House.
This translation is noted for its fidelity to the original text.
Goldman, Robert P. (1990).The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-01485-2.
————————— (1994).The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Kiskindhakanda. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-06661-5.
————————— (1996).The Ramayana of Valmiki: Sundarakanda. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-06662-2.
This translation is part of the Princeton Library of Asian Translations and is noted for its scholarly approach and detailed annotations. The project spans multiple volumes and years.
^InThe Oxford History of India (1919) byVincent A. Smith, The Ramayana is presented as 'neither historical nor allegorical, but a poetic creation based on mythology'[22]Hermann Jacobi, the GermanIndologist, who was the first European to write a whole book on the Ramayana-The Ramayana: History, Contents with a Concordance of the Printed Recensions (1893, English translation by S.N. Ghoshal, 1960). The book presentsthe Ramayana as a work based on mythology.[23] In December1975, theSahitya Akademi organized a five day international seminar on the Ramayana, The consensus on the nature of the material of the epic was that it was mythological.[24]
^Goldman 1984, p. 23, "[W]e feel that it is extremely unlikely that the archetype of the Valmiki Ramayana can be much earlier than the beginning of the seventh century B.C., although it is impossible to demonstrate this with any sort of rigor".
^Goldman 1984, p. 21–22: "[I]n the Balakanda, as in the central five books of the epic, the kingdom of Kosala is represented as being at the height of its power and prosperity, governed from a major urban settlement called Ayodhya, [o]nly at the very end of the Uttara-kanda, [the] epilogue to the poem [w]e find reference to Sravasti as a successor capital. [A]s Jacobi also pointed out, the capital city of the unified realm of Kosala is invariably known as Ayodhya in the epic and never by the name Saketa, the name by which it comes to be known in much of the Buddhist and later literature".
^Goldman & Sutherland Goldman 2022, p. 3: "The oldest surviving version of the great tale of Rāma, and the one that is doubtless the direct or indirect source of all of the hundreds and perhaps thousands of other versions of the story, is the monumental, mid-first millennium BCE epic poem in some twenty-five thousand Sanskrit couplets attributed to Vālmīki."
^Smith, Vincent Arthur.The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911.
^Jacobi, Hermann (1893).Das Ramayana, Geschichte und Inhalt nebst Concordanz nach den gedruckten Rezensionen [The Ramayana: History, Contents with a Concordance of the Printed Recensions] (in German).
^Noorani, A.G.The Babri Masjid Question, 1528-2003 'A Matter of National Honour'.
^Egenes, Linda; Reddy, Kumuda (2016).The Ramayana: A New Retelling of Valmiki's Ancient Epic—Complete and Comprehensive. Penguin. p. 2.ISBN978-0-14-311180-1.
^Rogers, J. M. (2008).The arts of Islam : treasures from the Nasser D. Khalili collection (Revised and expanded ed.). Abu Dhabi: Tourism Development & Investment Company (TDIC). pp. 272–3.OCLC455121277.
Brockington, J. L. (1998).The Sanskrit Epics. Brill.ISBN90-04-10260-4.
Cakrabartī, Bishṇupada (2006).The Penguin Companion to the Ramayana. Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-310046-1.
Claeys, Gregory (2010).The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-139-82842-0.
Coedès, George (1968). Vella, Walter F. (ed.).The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
Francisco, Juan R. (1989). "The Indigenization of the Rama Story in the Philippines".Philippine Studies.37 (1):101–111.JSTOR42633135.
Goldman, Robert P.; Sutherland Goldman, Sally J. (2022).The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki: The Complete English Translation. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-20686-8.
Guillermo, Artemio R. (2011).Historical Dictionary of the Philippines. Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-7511-1.
Lal, B. B. (2008).Rāma, His Historicity, Mandir, and Setu: Evidence of Literature, Archaeology, and Other Sciences. Aryan Books.ISBN978-81-7305-345-0.
Mankekar, Purnima (1999).Screening Culture, Viewing Politics: An Ethnography of Television, Womanhood, and Nation in Postcolonial India. Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-2390-7.
Rohman, Todd (2009). "The Classical Period". In Watling, Gabrielle; Quay, Sara (eds.).Cultural History of Reading: World literature. Greenwood.ISBN978-0-313-33744-4.
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