| Rajaraja I | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rājakēsari Varman, Ponniyin Selvan, Mum'muṭi Cōḻan,[1] Sivapathasekaran, Thirumurai Kanda Chola,Taila Kula Kaalan, Telungu kula kaalan,Pandiya Kula Sani,Keralandhagan,Sinhalandhagan,Kṣatriya Śikhāmaṇi | |||||
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| Chola Emperor | |||||
| Reign | June/July 985–January or February 1014 | ||||
| Predecessor | Uttama | ||||
| Successor | Rajendra I | ||||
| King ofAnuradhapura | |||||
| Reign | c. 992 – c. January/February 1014 | ||||
| Predecessor | Mahinda V | ||||
| Successor | Rajendra I | ||||
| Born | Arul Mozhi Varman (947-11-03)3 November 947 Thanjavur,Chola Empire (modern-dayTamil Nadu,India) | ||||
| Died | January 1014(1014-01-00) (aged 66) Thanjavur, Chola Empire | ||||
| Spouse |
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| Issue |
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| Dynasty | Chola | ||||
| Father | Parantaka II | ||||
| Mother | Vanavan Mahadevi | ||||
| Religion | Hinduism See details | ||||
| Signature |  | ||||
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| Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848 CE) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Related dynasties
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Rajaraja I (Middle Tamil:Rājarāja Cōḻaṉ;Classical Sanskrit:Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014),[1][4] also known asRajaraja the Great, was aChola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known for his conquests ofsouthern India and theAnuradhapura kingdom ofSri Lanka, as well as increasing Chola influence across theIndian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name is variously given as Arul Mozhi Varman
Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of thePandya country, theChera country, and northern Sri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such asLakshadweep,Thiladhunmadulu atoll, and parts of theMaldives in the Indian Ocean. His conquests were not limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against theWestern Gangas and theWestern Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as theTungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from theTelugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima over control ofVengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances.[5][6][7]
Rajaraja I commissioned the construction of theRajarajeshwaram Temple in the Chola capital ofThanjavur, revered as one of the most prominent examples of the medieval South Indian architectural style.[8] Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as theThirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar' (lit. 'The One Who FoundThirumurai').[6][9] He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known asvalanadus. Rajaraja died in 1014, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.
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Rajaraja was the son of the Chola kingParantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola, and his wife Vanavan.[10] As recorded in theThiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning "The Word of Sun Clan".[1][11] He was born around 947 during the Tamil month ofAipassi, under the Sadhayam star.[12] TheGovernment of Tamil Nadu recognises his birthdate as 3 November 947.[13] Rajaraja had an elder brother,Aditha II,[4] and an elder sister,Kundavai.[14]
Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following the reign of his great-grandfatherParantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder sonGandaraditya became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I's younger son,Arinjaya. Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded byMadhurantakan, likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son,Rajendra I, the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself.[4]
Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterwards, Sundara Chola also died, enabling Madhurantakan to assume the throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola's death, Arul Moli Varman ascended the throne in mid-985[4] and adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning "King among Kings."[15]
When Rajaraja came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centered around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory.[1] He transformed this kingdom from one that was recovering from attacks by theRashtrakuta Empire into one that was a well-organised empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom ofVengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up toKalinga in the north.[4]
Rajaraja Chola Thiruvalangadu plates states that, Arulmolivarman :
(performedtulabhara captured the town Vilinda; conquered thePandya Amarabujanga and burnt the lord ofLanka; defeatedSatyashraya; killed AndhraBhima; conquered the country of Parasurama(i.e.,Chera) and subdued the kings ofGanga,Kalinga,Vengi, Magatha, Aratta ,odda,Surashtra andChalukya).[16]
The Larger Leiden plates States thatRajaraja,
"conquered thePandya,Tulu,Kerala,Simhalendra andSatyashraya ; destroyed ships at Kandalur-Salai , captured Vengainadu(Vengi), Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, Kudamalainadu,Kollam,Kalingam, and Ilam(Sri Lanka ) ; and removed the splendour of the Seliyas(i.e.,Pandyas)."[16]
Rajaraja's earliest inscriptions commemorate a significant triumph at Kandalur Salai, located in present-day Kerala, around 988. He is acclaimed as 'Kāndalūr śālai Kalam-arutta', which translates to 'the one who destroyed Kandalur Salai'.[17]
Originally, this area was under the control of theAy chief, who served as a vassal to the Pandya king ofMadurai. However, it remains uncertain whether warriors from the Chera or Pandya dynasties were involved in this conflict. The Thiruvalangadu inscription suggests that Rajaraja's general capturedVizhinjam (Viḷinam), which could have been part of the Kandalur Salai campaign. It appears that this engagement involved the Chola navy, or possibly a joint operation involving both the navy and the army.[18]
Rajaraja's inscriptions begin to appear inKanyakumari district in the 990s and inThiruvananthapuram district in the early 1000s. The Chola subjugation of Kerala can be dated to the early years of the 11th century.[18] The Senur inscription, dated to 1005 and attributed to Rajaraja, records his military achievements. It mentions the destruction of the Pandya capital, Madurai, as well as the conquest of several regions. These include defeating the formidable rulers of Kollam (Venad), Kolla-desham (Mushika), and Kodungallur (the Chera Perumals of Makotai).[18][19][16] Some triumphs in the region of Malainadu were possibly achieved by Rajaraja's son, Rajendra Chola.[20]
Following his victory over the Pandyas, Rajaraja assumed the title of Pandya Kulashani, which translates to 'Thunderbolt to the Race of the Pandyas'. As a result of his conquest, the territory of the Pandyas became recognised as "Rajaraja Mandalam" or "Rajaraja Pandinadu".[21] When recounting Rajaraja's military expedition in Trisanku Kastha (the southern region), the Thiruvalangadu Grant of Rajendra I mentions the capture of a certain royal figure named Amarabhujanga.[22] However, the specific identity of this individual—whether he was a prince of the Pandya dynasty, a general serving the Pandya king, or a prince of the Kongu Chera dynasty—remains a matter of debate.[20][22] According to theKongu Desa Rajakkal, a historical record of theKongu Nadu region, it is suggested that this general eventually changed his loyalty to Rajaraja. He is said to have participated in the ritual ofkanakabhisheka, where gold is poured over the Chola king, symbolising an act of royal anointment or coronation.[22]
Once Rajaraja had consolidated his authority in the southern regions, he took on the title of Mummudi Chola. This title, which means "Three Crowned", symbolised his power over three important Tamil kingdoms: the Cholas, the Pandyas, and the Cheras.[1]
During the reign of King Mahinda V, the Sinhalese kingdom of Anuradhapura experienced a significant military revolt around 982 CE, primarily as a consequence of the monarch's economic policies. The armed forces of the Anuradhapura capital predominantly consisted of Tamil mercenaries recruited from coastal regions. By 982, tensions escalated into a full-fledged uprising led by these mercenaries, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The ensuing turmoil compelled the vulnerable Sinhala ruler to seek refuge in the Rohana principality, thereby plunging the capital city of Anuradhapura into an extended period of civil unrest lasting approximately eleven years, marked by widespread disorder and lawlessness.[23]
The disruption of central governance exacerbated the financial strain on the kingdom, particularly in meeting the obligations to the Tamil mercenaries. Consequently, the mercenaries, feeling aggrieved and disillusioned, turned their allegiance towards the Chola empire. This strategic shift left Anuradhapura vulnerable to the incursions of the Chola forces, who exploited the internal strife to mount invasions in 993. These events, documented in historical sources, underscore the intricate interplay of economic policies, military dynamics, and regional power struggles during this period in the history of Anuradhapura.[24][23]
In 993, Rajaraja achieved the conquest of Anuradhapura, known as Pihiti rata in local context, situated in Sri Lanka. This territory was subsequently designated as Ila-mandalam in Chola historical records.[19] The military campaign led to the sacking of Anuradhapura by the Chola army, resulting in the acquisition of the northern portion of Sri Lanka by the Chola empire. As part of their administrative efforts, the Cholas established a provincial capital at the strategic military outpost ofPolonnaruwa, renaming it Jananathamangalam in honour of Rajaraja's title.[23]
Under Chola administration, the official Tali Kumaran[clarification needed] oversaw the construction of a significantShiva temple known as Rajarajeshwara, meaning "Lord of Rajaraja", within the town of Mahatirtha, now recognised as modern-day Mantota. Consequently, Mahatirtha was renamed Rajarajapura in commemoration of the Chola monarch's conquest and establishment of authority in the region.[23]
The Thiruvalangadu Plates directly compare Rajaraja's campaign to the invasion of Lanka by the legendary hero Rama:
"Rama built with the aid of monkeys, a causeway across the sea, and then with great difficulties defeated the king of Lanka using sharp-edged arrows. But Rama was excelled by this king whose powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka."
— Thiruvalangadu Copper Plates[1]
In 998, Rajaraja annexed Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (present-day Karnataka).[25] During this campaign, he subdued theNolamba dynasty, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty.[26][27] These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.[28]
By 1004, Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province.[29] He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire.[30] In 1004 AD Raja Raja Chola encamped inGangavadi province, and soonChalukya army invaded. In theBattle of Gangavadi, Raja Raja Chola defeated the invading Chalukya army and securedGangavadi Province.[31]
Raja Raja Chola led the campaign in Ratta Padi in 1003-1004 AD and achieved victory in many battles.Raja Raja Chola I defeatedSatyashraya in theBattle of Annigeri and successfully conquered Annigeri Province. In this battle Satyashraya was assisted by his brother Dasavarman and General Dandanayaka Kesava. Dandanayaka Kesava was governor of the Belvola-300 and Puligere-300 divisions, which are located inAnnigeri Province. The Tiruvalangadu plates ofRajendra Chola state that Raja Raja defeatedSatyashraya who “fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i.e., Arulmolivarman's) ocean-like army; (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. In this battle Satyashraya's brother, Prince Dasavarman, was killed, and Chalukya general Dandanayaka Kesava was taken prisoner. After Raja Raja Chola returned to his capital with booty of some gold flowers and treasures, which he dedicated to the temple ofThanjavur.[32][33]
Raja Raja Chola diverted attention fromVengi affairs to theSatyashraya to counteroffensive and sent an army under Crown PrinceRajendra Chola in Chalukya Country. Rajendra marched with a 900,000-strong army and Captured Santalige, Kadambalige,Banavasi,Kogali and besieged the fort of Unkallu in the modern Unkal district located in the Dharwad district. In this ensuing battle, the Cholas defeated the Chalukyas, and the Chalukya commander, Lenka Keta, was killed. After Rajendra Chola successfully captured Unkallu Fort and then encamped at Donur.[34][35]
Following the Siege of Unkallu Fort, Rajendra battled against Satyashraya, who was opposing him in Donur. In the Battle of Donur,Rajendra chola defeatedSatyashraya and successfully raidedBanavasi,Donur (in the Bijapur region),Unkal (near modern Hubli),Kudala Sangama and parts of theRaichur Doab and securedGangavadi and Nolambavadi. But this conquest and all raids in Chalukya country only lasted until Satyashraya reconquered all territories up to Thungapathra.[36][37]
An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara(Donur inBijapur district), blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by theDharmaśāstras.[38] Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of theChola andWestern Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between theChalukyas of Badami and thePallavas of Kanchi.[39][40]
Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Eastern Chalukyas Dynasty.[30] However, Rajaraja emerged victorious in battle against Bhima, and Saktivarman was appointed as a viceroy under the Chola Dynasty.[28] Despite a brief period of Bhima's recapture ofKanchi in 1001, Rajaraja swiftly restored Saktivarman to power.[41][42] Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of theeastern Chalukya kingdom.[43]Satyashraya retaliated by invading theVengi country in 1006 A.D. and placed Saktivaiman on the Vengi Throne. Raja Raja Chola diverted the Chalukyas to send a big army under Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya country. SoSatyashraya, without having reinforcement to deal with the Chola army, called back his general Bayal Nambi, who advanced up toChebrollu. Satyastraya did not permanently recapture Vengi. He made attempts, but the Cholas successfully defended their influence.[33][42]
Narasipur, dated to 1006, records that Rajaraja's general Aprameya killed Hoysala generals and a minister identified as Naganna.[44][45] Additionally, a similar inscription inChannapatna describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.General Aprameya defeated Hoysala leaders manjaga, kaliga(or kali - ganga),Nigavarma and others in theBattle of Kalavur .winning by his valour in the plain of Kalavur a name to endure for ever.[43]
The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga occurred after the conquest of Vengi. This conquest marked the northern boundary of the Chola Empire at that time and established their control over the entirety of south and south-east India.[46][45][16]
In multiple historical accounts, there are mentions of Rajaraja's conquest of a place called "Kuda-malai-nadu" around the year 1000.[7][47] In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu". Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu).[7][48]
The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu.[49][25][43]
The naval campaigns of Rajaraja formed a reassertion of Chola power in the Indian Ocean.[7]
"A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."
— Romila Thapar,"Encyclopaedia Britannica".
The Cholas controlled the area aroundBay of Bengal withNagapattinam as the main port. TheChola Navy also played a major role in the invasion of Sri Lanka.[50] The success of Rajaraja allowed his sonRajendra Chola to lead theChola invasion of Srivijaya, carrying out naval raids in South-East Asia and briefly occupyingKadaram.[5][51]
Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are described as the greatest Chola rulers because of these conquests.[52][page needed]
Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi.[53][54][55] He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār.[56][full citation needed][57][full citation needed] The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identity of his mother is unknown.[citation needed] He had his first daughterKundavai with Lokamadevi who eventually marriedChalukya prince Vimaladithan.[citation needed] Rajaraja had two other daughters.[citation needed] Rajaraja died in 1014 in theTamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.[58]
Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers.[59] Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of the empire into units known asvalanadus.[60][61] From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign ofVikrama Chola in 1133, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials.[59] This led to the king exercising closer control over the different parts of the empire.[59] Rajaraja strengthened the local self-governments and installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while retaining their autonomy.[62][63][64] To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission toChina.[65] Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.[66]
Towards the end of his reign, Rajaraja appointedRajendra Chola I as co-regent, who served as the supreme commander of the northern and northwestern territories. Under his rule, the administrative system was expanded, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras.[60] Villavan Muvendavelan, one of Rajaraja's top officials, figures in many of his inscriptions.[69] Other officials named in inscriptions include theBana prince Narasimhavarman, the general SenapathiKrishnan Raman, the Samanta chiefVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan, and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.[70]
Rajaraja was a follower of theShaivite denomination ofHinduism, but he also dedicated several temples toVishnu.[citation needed] Rajaraja called himselfShivapada Shekhara (IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, 'the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva'.[71]
The Buddhist monastery ofChudamani Vihara was constructed in the 11th century inNagapattinam by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I. It was named Chudamani (or Chulamani) Vihara after King Sri Mara's father.[72][73] According to the small Leyden grant[clarification needed], this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.[74]
After hearing short excerpts of theTevaram in his court, Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns.[76] He sought the help ofNambiyandar Nambi.[77] It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form ofcadijam leaves half-eaten bywhite ants in a chamber inside the second precinct inThillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram.[78][77] Thebrahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram.[78][79] Rajaraja thus became known as 'Tirumurai Kanda Cholan', meaning 'One who saved theTirumurai'. In his workNambiyandar Nambi Puranam (aliasTirumurai Kanda Puranam), Nambi identifies his patron as "Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan" (lit. 'King Rajaraja, the best of the race of Abhaya').[80] At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of theNayanar saints were also placed inside the temple.[79] Nambi organised the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar,Appar, andSundarar—as the first seven books. He includedManickavasagar's "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The "Tirumandiram" of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacredanthathi of the labours of the 63 Nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book.[81][excessive detail?] The initial seven books were later recognised as theTevaram.[81] With the addition ofSekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known asTirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development.[81]
There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin.[19]
During 1010, Rajaraja built the Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple, and Rajarajeswaram) inThanjavur and dedicated it to Shiva. The temple and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity.[82][83] The temple is one of the largest temples in India and is an example ofDravidian architecture of theChola period.[84][85] Along withGangaikonda Cholapuram temple andAiravatesvara temple, Peruvudaiyar temple is part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples".[86]
Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess.[87] The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings.[88]
Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone.[citation needed] An inscription inTamil fromMulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year.[citation needed] An excerpt from such aMeikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:
Hail Prosperity! In the 21st year of (the reign of) the illustrious Ko Raja Rajakesari Varma, alias the illustrious Rajaraja Deva, who, while both the goddess of fortune and the great goddess of the earth, who had become his exclusive property, gave him pleasure, was pleased to destroy the kalam at Kandalur and conquered by his army, which was victorious in great battles, Vengai-nadu, Ganga-padi, Nulamba-padi, Tadigai-padi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam and Ira-mandalam, which is famed in the eight directions; who, while his beauty was increasing, and while he was resplendent (to such an extent) that he was always worthy to be worshipped, deprived the Seriyas of their splendour, and (in words) in the twenty-first year of Chola Arumoli, who possesses the river Ponni, whose waters are full of waves.[89]
Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.[90][better source needed]
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Media related toRajaraja I at Wikimedia Commons| Preceded by | Rajaraja I 985–1014 | Succeeded by |