Ionizing radiation is used in a wide variety of fields such asmedicine,nuclear power, research, and industrial manufacturing, but is a health hazard if proper measures against excessive exposure are not taken. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes cell damage to livingtissue andorgan damage. In high acute doses, it will result inradiation burns andradiation sickness, and lower level doses over a protracted time can causecancer.[6][7] TheInternational Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) issues guidance on ionizing radiation protection, and the effects of dose uptake on human health.
Alpha (α) radiation consists of a fast-movinghelium-4 (4He) nucleus and isstopped by a sheet of paper. Beta (β) radiation, consisting ofelectrons, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma (γ) radiation, consisting of energeticphotons, is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Neutron (n) radiation consists of free neutrons that are blocked by light elements, like hydrogen, which slow and/or capture them. Not shown:galactic cosmic rays that consist of energetic charged nuclei such asprotons,helium nuclei, and high-charged nuclei calledHZE ions.Cloud chambers are used to visualize ionizing radiation. This image show the tracks of particles, which ionize saturated air and leave a trail of water vapour.
Ionizing radiation may be grouped as directly or indirectly ionizing.
Any charged particle with mass can ionizeatoms directly byfundamental interaction through theCoulomb force if it has enough kinetic energy. Such particles includeatomic nuclei,electrons,muons, chargedpions,protons, and energetic charged nuclei stripped of their electrons. When moving at relativistic speeds (near thespeed of light, c) these particles have enough kinetic energy to be ionizing, but there is considerable speed variation. For example, a typical alpha particle moves at about 5% ofc, but an electron with 33 eV (just enough to ionize) moves at about 1% ofc.
Two of the first types of directly ionizing radiation to be discovered arealpha particles which are helium nuclei ejected from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay, and energetic electrons, which are calledbeta particles.
Naturalcosmic rays are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei likehelium ions andHZE ions. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the surface of the earth. Pions can also be produced in large amounts inparticle accelerators.
Alpha (α) particles consist of twoprotons and twoneutrons bound together into a particle: ahelium-4nucleus. Alpha particle emissions are generally produced in the process ofalpha decay.
Alpha particles are a strongly ionizing form of radiation, but when emitted by radioactive decay they have low penetration power and can beabsorbed by a few centimeters of air, or by the top layer of human skin. More powerful alpha particles fromternary fission are three times as energetic, and penetrate proportionately farther in air. The helium nuclei that form 10–12% of cosmic rays, are also usually of much higher energy than those from radioactive decay and pose shielding problems in space. However, this type of radiation is significantly absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, which is a radiation shield equivalent to about 10 meters of water.[8]
The alpha particle was named byErnest Rutherford after the first letter in theGreek alphabet,α, when he ranked the known radioactive emissions in descending order of ionizing effect in 1899. The symbol is α or α2+. Because they are identical to helium nuclei, they are also called He2+ or4 2He2+ indicating helium with a charge of +2 e (missing its two electrons). If the ion gains electrons from its environment, the α particle can be written as a normal (electrically neutral) helium atom4 2He.
Beta (β) particles are high-energy, high-speedelectrons orpositrons emitted by certain types ofradioactivenuclei, such aspotassium-40. The production of β particles is termedbeta decay. There are two forms of β decay, β− and β+, which respectively give rise to the electron and the positron.[9] Beta particles are much less penetrating than gamma radiation, but more penetrating than alpha particles.
High-energy beta particles may produce X-rays known asbremsstrahlung ("braking radiation") orsecondary electrons (delta ray) as they pass through matter. Both of these can cause an indirect ionization effect. Bremsstrahlung is of concern when shielding beta emitters, as the interaction of beta particles with some shielding materials produces bremsstrahlung. The effect is greater with material having high atomic numbers, so material with low atomic numbers is used for beta source shielding.
The positron or antielectron is theantiparticle or theantimatter counterpart of theelectron. When a low-energy positron collides with a low-energy electron,annihilation occurs, resulting in their conversion into the energy of two or moregamma rayphotons (seeelectron–positron annihilation). As positrons are positively charged particles they can directly ionize an atom through Coulomb interactions.
Charged nuclei are characteristic of galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events and except for alpha particles (charged helium nuclei) have no natural sources on Earth. In space, however, very high energy protons, helium nuclei, and HZE ions can be initially stopped by relatively thin layers of shielding, clothes, or skin. However, the resulting interaction will generate secondary radiation and cause cascading biological effects. If just one atom of tissue is displaced by an energetic proton, for example, the collision will cause further interactions in the body. This is called "linear energy transfer" (LET), which utilizeselastic scattering.
LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of theconservation of momentum, sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue.[10]
Indirectly ionizing radiation is electrically neutral and does not interact strongly with matter, therefore the bulk of the ionization effects are due to secondary ionization.
Different types ofelectromagnetic radiationThe total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and contributions by the three effects. The photoelectric effect dominates at low energy, but above 5 MeV, pair production starts to dominate.
Even though photons are electrically neutral, they can ionizeatoms indirectly through thephotoelectric effect and theCompton effect. Either of those interactions cause the ejection of an electron from an atom at relativistic speeds, turning that electron into a (secondary) beta particle that will ionize other atoms. Since most of the ionized atoms are due to thesecondary beta particles, photons are indirectly ionizing radiation.[11]
X-rays normally have a lower energy than gamma rays, and an older convention was to define the boundary as a wavelength of 10−11 m (or a photon energy of 100 keV).[15] That threshold was driven by historic limitations of older X-ray tubes and low awareness ofisomeric transitions. Modern technologies and discoveries have shown an overlap between X-ray and gamma energies. In many fields they are functionally identical, differing for terrestrial studies only in origin of the radiation. In astronomy, however, where radiation origin often cannot be reliably determined, the old energy division has been preserved, with X-rays defined as being between about 120 eV and 120 keV, and gamma rays as being of any energy above 100 to 120 keV, regardless of source. Most astronomical "gamma-rays" are knownnot to originate from radioactivity but, rather, result from processes like those that produce astronomical X-rays, except driven by much more energetic electrons.
Photoelectric absorption is the dominant mechanism in organic materials for photon energies below 100 keV, typical of classical X-ray tube originatedX-rays. At energies beyond 100 keV, photons ionize matter increasingly through theCompton effect, and then indirectly throughpair production at energies beyond 5 MeV. The accompanying interaction diagram shows two Compton scatterings happening sequentially. In every scattering event, the gamma ray transfers energy to an electron, and it continues on its path in a different direction and with reduced energy.
The lowest ionization energy of any element is 3.89 eV, forcaesium. However, US Federal Communications Commission material defines ionizing radiation as that with aphoton energy greater than 10 eV (equivalent to a farultraviolet wavelength of 124nanometers).[2] Roughly, this corresponds to both the firstionization energy of oxygen, and the ionization energy of hydrogen, both about 14 eV.[16] In someEnvironmental Protection Agency references, the ionization of a typical water molecule at an energy of 33 eV is referenced[17] as the appropriate biological threshold for ionizing radiation: this value represents the so-calledW-value, the colloquial name for theICRU'smean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed,[18] which combines ionization energy plus the energy lost to other processes such asexcitation.[19] At 38 nanometers wavelength forelectromagnetic radiation, 33 eV is close to the energy at the conventional 10 nm wavelength transition between extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, which occurs at about 125 eV. Thus, X-ray radiation is always ionizing, but only extreme-ultraviolet radiation can be considered ionizing under all definitions.
Radiation interaction: gamma rays are represented by wavy lines, charged particles and neutrons by straight lines. The small circles show where ionization occurs.
Neutrons have a neutral electrical charge often misunderstood as zero electrical charge and thus often do notdirectly cause ionization in a single step or interaction with matter. However, fast neutrons will interact with the protons in hydrogen vialinear energy transfer, energy that a particle transfers to the material it is moving through. This mechanism scatters the nuclei of the materials in the target area, causing direct ionization of the hydrogen atoms. When neutrons strike the hydrogen nuclei, proton radiation (fast protons) results. These protons are themselves ionizing because they are of high energy, are charged, and interact with electrons.
Neutrons that strike other nuclei besides hydrogen, transfer less energy to the other particle if linear energy transfer does occur. But, for many nuclei struck by neutrons,inelastic scattering occurs. Whether elastic or inelastic scatter occurs is dependent on the speed of the neutron, whetherfast orthermal or somewhere in between. It is also dependent on the nuclei it strikes and itsneutron cross section.
In inelastic scattering, neutrons are readily absorbed in a type ofnuclear reaction calledneutron capture and attributes to theneutron activation of the nucleus. Neutron interactions with most types of matter in this manner usually produceradioactive nuclei.Oxygen-16, for example, undergoes neutron activation, rapidly decays by a proton emission formingnitrogen-16, which decays to oxygen-16. The short-lived nitrogen-16 decay emits a powerful beta ray. This process can be written as:
16O (n,p)16N (fast neutron capture possible with >11 MeV neutron)
16N →16O + β− (Decay t1/2 = 7.13 s)
This high-energy β− further interacts rapidly with other nuclei, emitting high-energy γ viaBremsstrahlung
While not a favorable reaction, the16O (n,p)16N reaction is a major source of X-rays emitted from the cooling water of apressurized water reactor and contributes enormously to the radiation generated by a water-coolednuclear reactor while operating.
For the best shielding of neutrons, hydrocarbons that have an abundance ofhydrogen are used.
Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 14 minutes, 42 seconds. Free neutrons decay by emission of an electron and an electron antineutrino to become a proton, a process known asbeta decay:[20]
In the adjacent diagram, a neutron collides with a proton of the target material, and then becomes a fast recoil proton that ionizes in turn. At the end of its path, the neutron is captured by a nucleus in an (n,γ)-reaction that leads to the emission of aneutron capture photon. Such photons always have enough energy to qualify as ionizing radiation.
Neutron radiation, alpha radiation, and extremely energetic gamma (> ~20 MeV) can causenuclear transmutation andinduced radioactivity. The relevant mechanisms areneutron activation,alpha absorption, andphotodisintegration. A large enough number of transmutations can change macroscopic properties and cause targets to become radioactive themselves, even after the original source is removed.
Ionization of molecules can lead toradiolysis (breaking chemical bonds), and formation of highly reactivefree radicals. These free radicals may then react chemically with neighbouring materials even after the original radiation has stopped (e.g.ozone cracking of polymers by ozone formed by ionization of air). Ionizing radiation can also accelerate existing chemical reactions such as polymerization and corrosion, by contributing to the activation energy required for the reaction. Optical materials deteriorate under the effect of ionizing radiation.
Monatomic fluids, e.g. moltensodium, have no chemical bonds to break and no crystal lattice to disturb, so they are immune to the chemical effects of ionizing radiation. Simple diatomic compounds with very negativeenthalpy of formation, such ashydrogen fluoride will reform rapidly and spontaneously after ionization.
The ionization of materials temporarily increases their conductivity, potentially permitting damaging current levels. This is a particular hazard insemiconductor microelectronics used in electronic equipment; subsequent currents introduce operation errors or even permanently damage the devices. Devices intended for high-radiation environments such as the nuclear industry or outer space, may be maderadiation hard to resist such effects through design, material selection, and fabrication methods.
Ionizing radiation can cause an increase in the density of interface traps by reactivating passivateddangling bonds at interfaces between two materials, such as the Si/SiO2 interface inCMOS devices.[21] These traps can capture charge carriers, resulting in parasitic effects includingmobility degradation, increasednoise, andthreshold voltage shifts.
Proton radiation found in space can also causesingle-event upsets in digital circuits. The electrical effects of ionizing radiation are exploited in gas-filled radiation detectors, e.g. theGeiger counter or theion chamber.
Most adverse health effects of exposure to ionizing radiation may be grouped in two general categories:
deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to killing or malfunction of cells following high doses fromradiation burns.
stochastic effects, i.e.,cancer and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing tomutation of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ) cells.[22]
The most common impact is stochasticradiation-induced cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. For example, ionizing radiation is one cause ofchronic myelogenous leukemia,[23][24][25] although most people with CML have not been exposed to radiation.[24][25] The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial.[citation needed]
ThoughDNA is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certainmolecular bonds to formpyrimidine dimers. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can causesunburn to unprotected skin, as a result ofphotoreactions incollagen and (in theUV-B range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation ofreactive oxygen species in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema).[27] Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.[citation needed]
Relationship between radioactivity and detected ionizing radiation. Key factors are strength of the radioactive source, transmission effects and instrument sensitivityRelation between some ionizing radiation units[28]
The table below shows radiation and dose quantities in SI and non-SI units.
Ionizing radiation has many industrial, military, and medical uses. Its usefulness must be balanced with its hazards, a compromise that has shifted over time. For example, at one time, assistants in shoe shops in the USused X-rays to check a child's shoe size, but this practice was halted when the risks of ionizing radiation were better understood.[29]
Ionizing radiation is generated through nuclear reactions, nuclear decay, by very high temperature, or via acceleration of charged particles in electromagnetic fields. Natural sources include the Sun, lightning and supernova explosions. Artificial sources include nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, andx-ray tubes.
Background radiation comes from both natural and human-made sources.
The global average exposure of humans to ionizing radiation is about 3 mSv (0.3 rem) per year, 80% of which comes from nature. The remaining 20% results from exposure to human-made radiation sources, mainlymedical imaging. Average human-made exposure is much higher in developed countries, mostly due toCT scans andnuclear medicine.
Naturalbackground radiation comes from five primary sources: cosmic radiation, solar radiation, external terrestrial sources, radiation in the human body, andradon.
The background rate for natural radiation varies considerably with location, being as low as 1.5 mSv/a (1.5 mSv per year) in some areas and over 100 mSv/a in others. The highest level of purely natural radiation recorded on the Earth's surface is 90 μGy/h (0.8 Gy/a) on a Brazilian black beach composed ofmonazite.[30] The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found inRamsar, mainly due to naturally radioactive limestone used as a building material. Some 2000 of the most exposed residents receive an averageradiation dose of 10 mGy per year, (1 rad/yr) ten times more than the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources.[31] Record levels were found in a house where theeffective radiation dose due to external radiation was 135 mSv/a, (13.5 rem/yr) and thecommitted dose fromradon was 640 mSv/a (64.0 rem/yr).[32] This unique case is over 200 times higher than the world average background radiation. Despite the high levels of background radiation that the residents of Ramsar receive there is no compelling evidence that they experience a greater health risk. The ICRP recommendations are conservative limits and may represent an over representation of the actual health risk. Generally radiation safety organization recommend the most conservative limits assuming it is best to err on the side of caution. This level of caution is appropriate but should not be used to create fear about background radiation danger. Radiation danger from background radiation may be a serious threat but is more likely a small overall risk compared to all other factors in the environment.
The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside theSolar System. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from1 Daprotons (about 85% of it) to ~56 Daironnuclei and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are calledHZE ions.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largestparticle accelerators (seeultra-high-energy cosmic ray). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, includingx-rays,muons,protons,antiprotons,alpha particles,pions,electrons,positrons, andneutrons.
Thedose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, with a dose rate that varies in different parts of the world and based largely on the geomagnetic field, altitude, and solar cycle. The cosmic-radiation dose rate on airplanes is so high that, according to the United Nations UNSCEAR 2000 Report (see links at bottom), airline flight crew workers receive more dose on average than any other worker, including those in nuclear power plants. Airline crews receive more cosmic rays if they routinely work flight routes that take them close to the North or South pole at high altitudes, where this type of radiation is maximal.
Cosmic rays also include high-energy gamma rays, which are far beyond the energies produced by solar or human sources.
Most materials on Earth contain some radioactiveatoms, even if in small quantities. Most of the dose received from these sources is from gamma-ray emitters in building materials, or rocks and soil when outside. The majorradionuclides of concern forterrestrial radiation are isotopes ofpotassium,uranium, andthorium. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the formation of the Earth.
All earthly materials that are the building blocks of life contain a radioactive component. As organisms consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (seebanana equivalent dose). Some radionuclides, likepotassium-40, emit a high-energy gamma ray that can be measured by sensitive electronic radiation measurement systems. These internal radiation sources contribute to an individual's total radiation dose fromnatural background radiation.
An important source of natural radiation isradon gas, which seeps continuously from bedrock but can, because of its high density, accumulate in poorly ventilated houses.
Radon-222 is a gas produced by the α-decay ofradium-226. Both are a part of the naturaluranium decay chain. Uranium is found in soil throughout the world in varying concentrations. Radon is the largest cause of lung cancer among non-smokers and the second-leading cause overall.[33]
Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the Chernobyl reactor accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.Various doses of radiation in sieverts, ranging from trivial to lethal.Visual comparison of radiological exposure from daily life activities.
Time: For people exposed to radiation in addition to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the source of radiation.
Distance: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance, according to aninverse-square law (in an absolute vacuum).[34]
Shielding: Air or skin can be sufficient to substantially attenuate alpha radiation, while sheet metal or plastic is often sufficient to stop beta radiation. Barriers oflead,concrete, or water are often used to give effective protection from more penetrating forms of ionizing radiation such as gamma rays andneutrons. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or byremote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are specialplastic shields that stop beta particles, and air will stop most alpha particles. The effectiveness of a material in shielding radiation is determined by itshalf-value thicknesses, the thickness of material that reduces the radiation by half. This value is a function of the material itself and of the type and energy of ionizing radiation. Some generally accepted thicknesses of attenuating material are 5 mm of aluminum for most beta particles, and 3 inches of lead for gamma radiation.
These can all be applied to natural and human-made sources. For human-made sources the use ofContainment is a major tool in reducing dose uptake and is effectively a combination of shielding and isolation from the open environment. Radioactive materials are confined in the smallest possible space and kept out of the environment such as in ahot cell (for radiation) orglove box (for contamination).Radioactive isotopes for medical use, for example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, usually gloveboxes, whilenuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers that keep the radioactive materials contained. Work rooms, hot cells and gloveboxes have slightly reduced air pressures to prevent escape of airborne material to the open environment.
In nuclear conflicts or civil nuclear releasescivil defense measures can help reduce exposure of populations by reducing ingestion of isotopes and occupational exposure. One is the issue ofpotassium iodide (KI) tablets, which blocks the uptake ofradioactive iodine (one of the major radioisotope products ofnuclear fission) into the humanthyroid gland.
Occupationally exposed individuals are controlled within the regulatory framework of the country they work in, and in accordance with any local nuclear licence constraints. These are usually based on the recommendations of theInternational Commission on Radiological Protection.The ICRP recommends limiting artificial irradiation. For occupational exposure, the limit is 50 mSv in a single year with a maximum of 100 mSv in a consecutive five-year period.[26]
The radiation exposure of these individuals is carefully monitored with the use ofdosimeters and other radiological protection instruments which will measure radioactive particulate concentrations, area gamma dose readings andradioactive contamination. A legal record of dose is kept.
Examples of activities where occupational exposure is a concern include:
Of lesser magnitude, members of the public are exposed to radiation from thenuclear fuel cycle, which includes the entire sequence from processinguranium to the disposal of the spent fuel. The effects of such exposure have not been reliably measured due to the extremely low doses involved. Opponents use a cancer per dose model to assert that such activities cause several hundred cases of cancer per year, an application of the widely acceptedLinear no-threshold model (LNT).
The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting artificial irradiation to the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year, not including medical and occupational exposures.[26]
In anuclear war, gamma rays from both the initial weapon explosion andfallout would be sources of radiation exposure.
Massive particles are a concern for astronauts outside theEarth's magnetic field who would receive solar particles fromsolar proton events (SPE) andgalactic cosmic rays from cosmic sources. These high-energy charged nuclei are blocked by Earth's magnetic field but pose amajor health concern for astronauts traveling to the Moon and to any distant location beyond Earth orbit. Highly charged HZE ions in particular are known to be extremely damaging, though protons make up the vast majority of galactic cosmic rays. Evidence indicates past SPE radiation levels that would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts.[37]
Air travel exposes people on aircraft to increased radiation from space as compared to sea level, includingcosmic rays and fromsolar flare events.[38][39] Software programs such asEpcard, CARI, SIEVERT, PCAIRE are attempts to simulate exposure by aircrews and passengers.[39] An example of a measured dose (not simulated dose) is 6 μSv per hour from London Heathrow to Tokyo Narita on a polar route.[39] However, dosages can vary, such as during periods of high solar activity.[39] The United States FAA requires airlines to provide flight crew with information about cosmic radiation, and anInternational Commission on Radiological Protection recommendation for the general public is no more than 1 mSv per year.[39] Also, many airlines do not allowpregnant flightcrew members, to comply with a European Directive.[39] The FAA has a recommended limit of 1 mSv total for a pregnancy, and no more than 0.5 mSv per month.[39] Information originally based onFundamentals of Aerospace Medicine published in 2008.[39]
Hazardous levels of ionizing radiation are signified by the trefoil sign on a yellow background. These are usually posted at the boundary of a radiation controlled area or in any place where radiation levels are significantly above background due to human intervention.
The red ionizing radiation warning symbol (ISO 21482) was launched in 2007, and is intended forIAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury, including food irradiators, teletherapy machines for cancer treatment and industrial radiography units. The symbol is to be placed on the device housing the source, as a warning not to dismantle the device or to get any closer. It will not be visible under normal use, only if someone attempts to disassemble the device. The symbol will not be located on building access doors, transportation packages or containers.[40]
^Herrera Ortiz AF, Fernández Beaujon LJ, García Villamizar SY, Fonseca López FF. Magnetic resonance versus computed tomography for the detection of retroperitoneal lymph node metastasis due to testicular cancer: A systematic literature review. European Journal of Radiology Open.2021;8:100372.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100372
^Hao Peng."Gas Filled Detectors"(PDF).Lecture notes for MED PHYS 4R06/6R03 – Radiation & Radioisotope Methodology. MacMaster University, Department of Medical Physics and Radiation Sciences. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2012-06-17.
^Huether, Sue E.; McCance, Kathryn L. (2016-01-22).Understanding pathophysiology (6th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. p. 530.ISBN9780323354097.OCLC740632205.
^Mortazavi, S.M.J.; P.A. Karamb (2005). "Apparent lack of radiation susceptibility among residents of the high background radiation area in Ramsar, Iran: can we relax our standards?".Radioactivity in the Environment.7:1141–1147.doi:10.1016/S1569-4860(04)07140-2.ISBN9780080441375.ISSN1569-4860.
^Sohrabi, Mehdi; Babapouran, Mozhgan (2005). "New public dose assessment from internal and external exposures in low- and elevated-level natural radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran".International Congress Series.1276:169–174.doi:10.1016/j.ics.2004.11.102.
![2007 ISO radioactivity danger symbol intended for IAEA Category 1, 2 and 3 sources defined as dangerous sources capable of death or serious injury.[40]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLogo_iso_radiation.svg)
