Within the variousJewish denominations, there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination, and differences in opinion regarding who is recognized as a rabbi. Non-Orthodox movements, includingConservative Judaism,Reform Judaism,Reconstructionist Judaism, andJewish Renewal, have set their requirements forsemikhah based on what they considerhalakhic reasons (as in Conservative Judaism) and ethical reasons (as in Reform and Reconstructionist) Judaism).[3][4]
The word comes from theMishnaic Hebrewconstructרְבִּיrǝbbī,[a] meaning 'Master [Name]'; the standard Hebrew noun isרבrav 'master'.Rav is also used as a title for rabbis,[6] as arerabbeinu ('our master') andha-rav ('the master'). A derived term isrebbe.
The Hebrew root in turn derives from theSemitic rootר-ב-ב (R-B-B), which inBiblical Aramaic means 'great' in many senses, including 'revered', but appears primarily as a prefix in construct forms.[7] Although the usagerabim 'many' (as 1 Kings 18:25,הָרַבִּים) 'the majority', 'the multitude' occurs for the assembly of the community in theDead Sea Scrolls, there's no evidence to support an association of this use with the later title "rabbi".[8] The root iscognate toArabicربّrabb,[9] meaning 'lord' (generally used when talking about God, but also about temporal lords), and to theSyriac wordܪܒܝrabi.
Some communities, especiallySephardic andYemenite Jews, historically pronounced the titleרִבִּיrībbī; this pronunciation competed withרְבִּיrǝbbī andרַבִּיrabbī inAshkenaz until the modern period.[10][11]
"Rabbi" is not an occupation found in theHebrew Bible, and ancient generations did not apply related titles such asrabban,rabbi, orrav for either the Babylonian sages or thesages in Israel. For example,Hillel I andShammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) had no rabbinic title prefixed to their names. The titles "rabban" and "rabbi" are first mentioned in Jewish literature in theMishnah.Rabban was first used forRabban Gamaliel the Elder, RabbanSimeon ben Gamliel (his son), and RabbanYohanan ben Zakkai, all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of theSanhedrin in the first century. Early recipients of the titlerabbi includeRabbi Zadok andRabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, beginning in the time of the disciples of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai. The title "Rabbi" (the Greek transliteration ofῥαββί) occurs in theChristian books ofMatthew,Mark, andJohn in theNew Testament, in which it is used—sometimes negatively—in reference to the "Scribes andPharisees" as well as toJesus.[11][12]
According to some,[weasel words] the title "rabbi" or "rabban" was first used after 70 CE to refer to Yohanan ben Zakkai and his students, and references in Rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis earlier in the 1st century are anachronisms or retroactivehonorifics.[13] Other scholars[like whom?] believe that the term "rabbi" was a well-known informal title by the beginning of the first century CE, and thus that the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis reflect the titles used in this period.[14]
The governments of the kingdoms ofIsrael andJudah were based on a system that included theJewish kings; theJewish prophets; the legal authority of the high court of Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin; and the ritual authority of thepriesthood (כֹּהֲנִים,kōhănīm). Members of the Sanhedrin had to receive their ordination through an unbroken line of transmission fromMoses; however, instead of being called "rabbis", they were referred to as "priests" or "scribes", likeEzra, who is called in the Hebrew Bible "Ezra the priest-scribe, a scholar in matters concerning GOD's commandments and laws to Israel"(Ezra 7:11,Revised JPS Edition).[15] "Rabbi" as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible,[16] though later Rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise biblical figures, as in tractatePirkei Avot 6:3.[17]
With the destruction of the twoTemples in Jerusalem, the end of the Jewish monarchy, the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and the priesthood, and the later failure of theBar Kokhba revolt, the focus of scholarly and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the Great Sanhedrin (הַסַּנְהֶדְרִין הַגְּדוֹלָה,ha-Sanhedrin ha-Gedolah). The Great Sanhedrin was composed of the earliest group of "rabbis" in the contemporary sense of the word, in large part because they began the formulation and explication of what became known as Judaism'sOral Torah (תּוֹרָה שֶׁבְּעַל־פֶּה,Tōrā šebbəʿal-pe, 'Torah of the mouth'). The Oral Torah was eventually codified in the Mishnah, Talmud, and subsequent Rabbinic scholarship, leading to what is known asRabbinic Judaism.
The traditional explanation is that from the 1st to 5th centuries, the title "rabbi" was given to those sages of theLand of Israel who received formal ordination (semikhah), while the lesser title "rav" was given to sages who taught in theTalmudic Academies in Babylonia, as ordination could not be performed outside the Land of Israel.[16][18]Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: "Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, [and] one's name is greater than Rabban".[19] However, some modern scholars[like whom?] argue that "rabbi" and "rav" are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect.[19]
After the suppression of theJewish Patriarchate and Sanhedrin byTheodosius II in 425, there could no longer be formal ordination in the traditional sense. Like the Babylonian sages, a recognised scholar could be calledRav orHakham (חכם, 'Wise [one]'). The transmission of learning from teacher to disciple remained of tremendous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification.
In theearly Middle Ages, "rabbi" was not a formal title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great scholarship and reputation.[16] After the emergence ofKaraite Judaism, Jews who remained within the purview of normative—i.e., Rabbinic Judaism—became known as "rabbanites".[16] Initially, communities might have had a religious judge appointed by the centralgeonate, often possessing a certification known aspitka dedayanuta or bearing the titlechaver (short forchaver besanhedrin hagedolah, used in Israel) oraluf (used in Babylonia).[16] By the 11th century, as the geonate weakened it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority.[16] In the 11th–12th century, some local rabbinic authorities in Spain received formal certification known asketav masmich orketav minui in preparation for their leadership role.[16]Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the community and teach Torah, and the social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate.
Until the mid-14th-centuryBlack Death pandemic, Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars on a council, rather than the decision of a single authority.[20] In the 14th century, the concept arose of a single person who served as the religious authority for a particular area (themara de'atra).[16] Formal ordination is first recorded among Ashkenazim withMeir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who issued the formal titleMoreinu (our teacher) to scholars. However, it likely existed somewhat earlier.[21] By the 15th century, this formal ordination, known assemicha, had become a requirement to be recognized as a rabbi.[20] Initially, some Sephardic communities objected to such formal ordination, but over time they too adopted the system.[16]: 13
A dramatic change in rabbinic functions occurred withJewish emancipation. Tasks that were once the primary focus for rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less prominent, while other tasks that had been secondary, such as delivering sermons, increased in importance.
In 19th-century Germany and the United States, the duties of the rabbi in some respects became increasingly similar to the duties of other clergy, such as theProtestant Christian minister, and the title "pulpit rabbis" arose to describe this phenomenon.Sermons, pastoral counseling, and representing the congregation to the community all increased in importance.[16] Non-Orthodox rabbis, on a day-to-day business basis, now spend more time on these functions than they do teaching or answering questions on Jewish law and philosophy. Within the ModernOrthodox community, many rabbis still mainly deal with teaching and questions of Jewish law, but many are increasingly dealing with these same pastoral functions.[22]
Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary betweenGod and humans; this idea was considered outside the bounds ofJewish theology. Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered imbued with special powers or abilities.
Rabbis have always been the main links in the chain of transmission (masorah,מסורה) of Torah throughout the generations of Jews.[23] Learning from and studying previous generations' rabbinical leaders and thinkers, offering new insight (hidushim,חידושים), and teaching the public have always been primary functions of the rabbinate.Torah study is a rabbi's lifelong undertaking that does not end with ordination. A rabbi is expected to set aside time daily for study. A rabbi who does not constantly replenish their store of Torah learning will lack the knowledge, inspiration, and mastery ofHalakha (Jewish law) and traditions required to perform all other rabbinic functions.[fact or opinion?]
Once acquired, Torah must be passed on, given its status inDeuteronomy 33:4 as "the heritage of the congregation ofJacob".[24] Teaching by rabbis occurs in many venues—elementary (cheder,חדר) schools and intermediate (yeshivah,ישיבה) and advanced (kollel,כולל) learning institutions, but also the public and community squares outside of learning institutions.[25] In manysynagogues, the rabbi will give a short class (shiur,שיעור) to those who attend morning and/or evening services. The sermon is another form of public education, often integrating Bible passages with a contemporary ethical message,[26] and no Jewish meal or celebration is complete without the rabbi'sd'var Torah (דבר תורה, 'Torah talk')—a short exposition of verses of Jewish literature related to a given discussion.
Apart from face-to-face instruction, rabbis have composed an extensivebody of literature over the millennia ofJewish history, dealing with all aspects of the Jewish tradition.Jewish commentaries on the Bible,Halakha and halakhic commentaries,responsa,mystical andethical tracts, and collections of sermons are examples of common genres of rabbinic literature.
BeforeJewish emancipation, rulers delegated discipline and dispute settlement within the Jewish community (kahal,קהל) to the Jewish community. If a dispute, domestic or commercial, a tort, or a petty crime, involved only Jewish residents, then it could be settled in the town'sJewish court (beit din,בית דין, 'house of judgement') according to Jewish law. The community's rabbi, with his extensive knowledge ofHalakha, was expected to preside asAv Beit Din (אב בית דין, 'Father [of the] House of Judgement'),[27] although lay assessors might join him in judgment. The judgments were enforced with fines and various degrees of communal excommunication (herem,חרם) when necessary.[28]
After emancipation, Jews turned to civil courts for dispute resolution as citizens of their respective countries. Today, rabbinical courts remain active under the auspices of each Jewish denomination for religious matters, such asconversion anddivorce, as well as for civil matters when the parties (voluntarily) elect to have rabbinical judges serve as their arbitrators.[29] InIsrael, there arerabbinical courts for matters ofpersonal status.
During the era of Jewish self-government, some problems in the community were considered regional or universal and could not be solved by a rabbi acting alone. Rabbinical synods were convened for concerted action, calling together the prominent rabbis of the region to debate solutions and enact binding regulations (takkanot,תקנות) for their communities. The regulations involved matters as diverse asdowries andmatrimonial law; relations withgentiles; utilizing civil courts; the handling of orphaned children; anti-counterfeiting measures; and hiring schoolteachers.[30] The most famous[according to whom?] of these ordinances is ascribed toRabbeinu Gershom, and was probably enacted in a rabbinic synod he convened inc. 1000 CE.[31] The ordinance, still in effect today, prohibitspolygamy among Jews in the West.
In the contemporary era, rabbis from all majorJewish religious movements—Conservative,Modern Orthodox,Reform,Reconstructionist,Hasidic, andHaredi—have enactedtakkanot both in the State of Israel and throughout theJewish diaspora. In Israel, where theChief Rabbinate holds exclusive governmental authority over matters of personal status and formally recognizes only Orthodoxy, enactments by non‑Orthodox movements lack official standing.[32] Today, most congregational rabbis are members of a national rabbinic organization related to their movement,[note 1] and there is often an association of local rabbis in their city. When these bodies debate local and national questions, they function in a manner that is similar to the rabbinic synods of the past.
The Jewish community requires a number of religious institutions for daily life, and it falls to rabbis, with their knowledge of Jewish law, to supervise them to ensure they operate according to Jewish law. Examples are the regulation of butchery (shekhita,שְׁחִיטָה); Jewish dietary laws in local shops and institutions (kashrut,כַּשְׁרוּת); the community's ritual bath (mikveh,מִקְוֶה); the community's elementary school (cheder); theShabbat boundaries, oreruvim (עֵרוּבִים, 'mixture'); and the synagogue'schevra kadisha (חֶבְרָה קַדִּישָׁא, 'sacred society'). In the modern era, rabbis who specialize in this type of supervision may find full-time employment as amashgiach (משגיח, 'overseer'), and some of these functions are now performed by national organizations, such as theOrthodox Union, which has akosher certification agency.[36]
In addition to answering questions about Jewish law and rituals, a congregational rabbi is often sought forpastoral counseling on personal matters by congregants, as well as for generalpastoral care. Much of a modern rabbi's time is devoted to pastoral work, includingvisiting the sick (ביקור חולים,bîqûr ḥôlîm)—amitzvah (מִצְוָה) in Judaism—and officiating at lifecycle occasions like deaths and births.[16] In the pre-modern era, rabbis had no special training in counseling, relying instead on personal qualities of empathy and caring. These factors continue to inform rabbinical counseling in the modern era. However, manyrabbinical seminaries offer, if not mandate, formal training and coursework in psychology (e.g.,counseling psychology) and pastoral counseling as part of the ordination curriculum and may offer internships in counseling and social services for rabbinical students.[16][37] Among Hasidic Jews, turning to the community'srebbe for advice on personal matters is common.
Traditionally, rabbis were not tasked with leadingJewish prayer services. There is no requirement that a rabbi be present for public prayer. The Jewish liturgy is fixed and printed insiddurim (סִידּוּרים); the vocal portions are chanted by a cantor (hazzan), and theTorah portion is read by a trained reader (ba’al koreh,בַּעַל קוֹרֵא). Before the modern era, the rabbis were present; they were typically seated in front near theTorah ark, and as a matter of respect, the pace at which the rabbi recited their prayers set the pace of the service. If halakhic questions arose about the prayer service, the rabbi would answer them.
In modern synagogues, the rabbi is more active in leading prayer services. In some synagogues, it is permitted for the rabbi to select passages from the prayer book for public reading, omit some passages for brevity, and add special prayers to the service. The rabbi may also lead the congregation in responsive reading, announce page numbers, and comment on the liturgy occasionally. At Shabbat andholiday services, the congregational rabbi may deliver a sermon before or after the Torah is read.
Halakha does not require the presence of a rabbi at a marriage,bar or bat mitzvah,brit milah (circumcision), funeral or house of mourning, or the unveiling of a monument at a cemetery. At the same time, Jewish law has prescribed requirements for every event and ritual. It therefore became customary for rabbis to be present and lead the community in celebration and mourning. In the modern era, it is virtually obligatory to have the rabbi's participation at these events, and ministering to the congregation in these settings has become a major aspect of the modern rabbinate. Jewish divorce, which requires abeit din, will always have rabbis in attendance.
The synagogue has been a place wheretzedakah (צְדָקָה, 'charity') is collected every weekday after services and then distributed to the needy beforeShabbatot (שַׁבָּתוֹת, 'Shabbat days') and holidays. However, most synagogues now suggest that congregants support the synagogue via an annual dues payment, usually collected monthly. It was not the rabbi who collected these sums; that task was assigned to the shammash (שַׁמָשׁ, 'helper'), wardens of charity, and charitable associations.[38] Still, the rabbi's task was to teach that charity is a core Jewish value. The rabbi did this by preaching, teaching, and by leading by example—hosting poor out-of-town yeshiva students at the home table and offering Jewish travelers a kosher meal.Maimonides formulated a ladder of eight degrees of charity, starting with reluctant giving and ending with teaching someone a trade.[39] RabbiIsrael Salanter (1809–1883) was once asked, "How do you provide for your spiritual needs?" He answered, "By providing for someone else's physical needs."[40] Today,Jewish federations and foundations collect and distribute most charity within the Jewish community. However, the rabbi retains the task of teaching the value of charity and often participates personally in appeals for the synagogue and for national and international causes.
The rabbi serves as a role model for the congregation through their conduct and deportment. Congregation members are keen observers of their rabbi's personality traits, family life, professional conduct, leisure activities, and how they treat others. Rabbis are aware of this and, in the best case, deliberately model their conduct to represent Jewish values to the community and outsiders.
This aspect of the rabbinate, setting an example for the public, has a direct application in Jewish law. The way the greatest rabbis andTorah scholars conduct themselves can become a precedent in Jewish law, known asma'aseh (מַעֲשֶׂה, 'act').[41] For example, based on reports of what rabbis did in the Talmud, Maimonides ruled that one engaged in public affairs should not break off their duties to recite certain prayers.[42]
Some rabbis, if not synagogues, program and guide activities designed toreach Jews unaffiliated with Judaism orlapsed in their observances. These include "beginners' services" wherein the Jewish liturgy is shortened and explained, andShabbatons, wherein unaffiliated Jews are hosted by an observant family during Shabbat to experience the day in a religious setting and to learn about its rituals and customs. Outreach is a defining feature ofChabad Judaism, with designated buildings—often actual houses—in many cities worldwide havingChabad houses for centralized outreach activities to unaffiliated Jews and prospective converts in the community. Chabademploys rabbis (who, in Chabad Judaism, must be male) and their families to staff Chabad houses and conduct Chabad programming. In addition to Chabad Judaism, theConservative,Modern Orthodox, andReform movements also have formalkiruv (Hebrew:קירוב,lit. 'bringing close') programs.
Most rabbis occasionally encounter non-Jewish individuals seeking information about Judaism or wishing to exploreconversion to Judaism. This may happen when one member of a couple wishing to marry is seeking conversion, or on other occasions whenintermarriage is not involved. Based on the rabbi's training and assessment of the person's motivations and goals, the rabbi's approach may range from discouragement of the potential convert to mentoring and directing to a conversion class, in accordance with the policy on conversion of the rabbi's movement.[43] At least one rabbi will serve on thebeit din that performs a conversion. There are no rabbis serving as "Jewish missionaries" per se; there is no parallel in Judaism to theproselytizing of other faiths.[44]
In periods when match-making was common, rabbis were key tofinding partners for their congregants in the community.[45] Rabbis were well-acquainted with their community members, particularly the young unmarried men attending their yeshivas. Parents did not hesitate to consult the rabbi for suitable matches. Today, in Orthodox circles in which socializing among the sexes is uncommon, this practice continues, and in all branches of Judaism, a rabbi who can help in this arena will not hesitate to do so.[46]
The modern synagogue is a non-profit religious corporation run by a board of directors elected by the members. However, board members are not present on a day-to-day basis. In most synagogues, the rabbi administers the synagogue, supervises personnel, manages the physical plant, reviews (if not writes) the newsletter, and interacts with the brotherhood, the sisterhood, and the youth organizations. Very large synagogues may employ a separate administrator or assistant rabbi to perform some or all of these functions.
Rabbis go into the field wherever members of the Jewish community may be found. This is most noticeable in the military services and university campuses where some rabbis serve as Jewish chaplains full-time. All branches of the U. S. military haveJewish chaplains in their ranks,[47] and rabbis serve in theIsrael Defense Forces. TheHillel Foundation provides rabbis and Jewish services on 550 campuses,[48] while Chabad operates Jewish centers with a rabbi near 150 college campuses.[49] Local rabbis perform otherchaplaincy functions on a part-time basis in hospitals, senior homes, and prisons. Worthy of mention are the rabbis who accompanied Jews to concentration camps during theNazi era; in dire circumstances, they continued to provide rabbinic services, such as ritual observance, advice, and counseling, to the victims ofNazi persecution, whenever it was possible to do so.[50]
As leaders of the Jewish community, many rabbis devote a portion of their time to activities in the public arena, especially where Jewish interests are at stake. They dialogue with public officials and community groups, interact with school boards, advocate for and against legislation, engage in public debates, write newspaper columns, appear in the media, and march in parades and demonstrations with others to show support for causes. The extent and tenor of these activities are dictated by the rabbi's conscience and social and political leanings as informed by Jewish values.
Rabbis are often called upon to defend the Jewish faith. During theMiddle Ages, theCatholic Church arranged a series of publicdisputations between rabbis and priests that were intended to "disprove" the Jewish faith and condemn its religious texts, including theTalmud.[51] The rabbis acquitted themselves well in debate with their superior understanding of Jewish texts, and mass conversions toChristianity did not take place. However, following these disputations, local rulers, at the Catholic Church's behest, consigned cartloads of precious Hebrew manuscripts to the flames.[52] Today, rabbis are involved incountering the activities of missionaries aimed at converting Jews to other religions, explaining, for example, that one cannot be of the Jewish faith while believing in either theChristian God or theChristian messiah.[53]
Some rabbis engage ininterfaith dialogue with clergy of other faiths. They may host student groups from the religious schools of other faiths and participate in interfaith services. They will view these activities as a means of deepening understanding and reducing misconceptions in a diverse society. Other rabbis, especially those affiliated with Orthodox Judaism, will generally not participate in interfaith dialogues about theology. They will, however, engage in discussions with the clergy of other faiths about matters of mutual social concern.[54]
There is a segment of the rabbinate that does not engage in rabbinic functions on a daily basis, except perhaps to study. Because rabbinic ordination (semikhah) has the features of a post-graduate academic degree, some study to receive ordination but then follow a different career in secular business, education, or the professions. These rabbis may be asked from time to time to perform a rabbinic function on an ad hoc and voluntary basis (e.g., to conduct a marriage ceremony or answer a religious question). At other times, they act as regular members of the Jewish community. No negative attitudes attach to rabbis who do not practice the profession. They are likely admired in their communities for their decision to spend years engaged in advanced Torah study for its own sake.
In antiquity, those who performed rabbinic functions, such as judging a case or teaching Torah to students, did not receive compensation for their services.[55] Being a rabbi was not a full-time profession, and those who served had other occupations to support themselves and their families, such as woodchopper, sandal-maker, carpenter, water-carrier, farmer, or tanner.[56] A respected scholar, RabbiZadok (1st century CE), said "never to use the Torah as a spade for digging,"[57] which was understood to mean that one should never use one's Torah knowledge for an inappropriate purpose such as earning a fee. Still, as honored community members, Torah sages were allowed a series of privileges and exemptions that somewhat alleviated their financial burdens. These included such things as tax exemption from communal levies,[58] marketplace priority (first in, first out regarding their trade),[58] receiving personal services from their students (shimush talmedei hakhamim,שימוש תלמידי חכמים),[59] silent business partnerships with wealthy merchants,[60] and a substitute fee to replace their lost earnings when they had to leave work to perform a rabbinic function (sekhar battalah,שכר בטלה).[61]
By the fifteenth century, it was the norm for Jewish communities to compensate their rabbis. However, the rabbi's contract might refer to a "suspension fee" (sekhar battalah) rather than a salary, as if he were relinquishing a salary from secular employment.[65] The size of salaries varied, depending on the size of the community served, with rabbis in large cities being well-compensated while rabbis in small towns might receive a small stipend.[66] Rabbis were able to supplement their rabbinic incomes by engaging in and accepting fees for associated functions such as serving as the community's scribe, notary, and archivist, teaching in the elementary school or yeshivah, publishing books, arbitrating civil litigations, or even serving as a matchmaker.[67]
With the formation of rabbinical seminaries starting in the nineteenth century, the rabbinate experienced a degree of professionalization still underway. An ordained graduate of a rabbinical seminary that is affiliated with one of the modern branches of Judaism, Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Modern Orthodox, has become able to find employment—whether as a congregational rabbi, teacher, chaplain, campusHillel director, camp director, social worker or administrator—through the placement office of their seminary. Like any modern professional, ordained graduates negotiate the terms of employment with potential employers and sign a contract specifying duties, duration of service, salary, benefits, pension, and the like.[68] A rabbi's salary and benefits have become similar to those of other modern professionals, such as lawyers and accountants, with comparable levels of post-graduate education.[69] It is also possible to engage in the rabbinate part-time (e.g., at a synagogue with a small membership); the rabbi's salary will be proportionate to the services rendered and they are likely to have additional employment outside the synagogue.[citation needed]
The practical basis for rabbinic authority involves accepting the rabbi and their scholarly credentials. In practical terms, Jewish communities and individuals commonly proffer allegiance to the authority of the rabbi they have chosen. Such a rabbinic leader is sometimes called themara d'atra (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic:מָרָא דְּאַתְרָא,lit. 'master of the place').[70] Jewish individuals may acknowledge the authority of others but will defer legal decisions to themara d'atra.[71]
The rabbi derives authority from achievements within a meritocratic system. Rabbis' authority is neither nominal nor spiritual, based on credentials. Typically, the rabbi receives an institutional stamp of approval. This authority allows them to engage in the halakhic process and make legal prescriptions.[72]
The same pattern is true within broader communities, ranging from Hasidic communities to rabbinical or congregational organizations. There will be a formal or de facto structure for rabbinic authority responsible for the community members. However, Hasidic communities do not have a rabbi; they instead have aRebbe, who plays a similar role but is thought to have a special connection to God. The Rebbe's authority is based on a spiritual connection to God, and they are venerated differently from rabbis.
According to the Talmud, citing Leviticus 19:32,[73] it is amitzvah to honor rabbis, Torah scholars, and older people.[74][75][76] One should stand in their presence and address them with respect.[77]Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar, there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference.[78] It is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students.[79] Rabbis and Torah scholars have the authority to place individuals who insult them under aherem (excommunication) to ensure discipline within the Jewish community.[80]
The first recorded examples of ordination areMoses transmitting his authority toJoshua,[81] as well as the 70 elders.[82] Similarly,Elijah transmitted his authority toElisha.[83]
According toPirkei Avot, ordination was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to theGreat Assembly, to theZugot, and to theTannaim.[84] The chain ofsemikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century CE, though possibly as late as the 12th century. According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classicsemikhah.[85] Since then, a number ofmodern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. No such attempt has been accepted as valid among a consensus of rabbis or persisted for longer than about a century.
Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed, which use much of the same terminology but have lesser significance in Jewish law. Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awardedsemikhah after completing ayeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary program. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include Talmud study, the codes ofHalakha, and the responsa literature to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects, including counseling, education, comparative religion, and sermon delivery. There is no unifying authority over all movements of Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it.
RabbiMoshe Feinstein, a leading Rabbinical authority for Orthodox Judaism of the second half of the twentieth century.
An Orthodoxsemikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law and responsa, in accordance with longstanding tradition. Orthodox rabbis typically study at ayeshiva, which provides training in general Torah scholarship; increasingly, Orthodox rabbis further train at akollel. Bothyeshivas andkollels are forms ofrabbinical schools or academies. In both cases, the programs are typicallypost-undergraduate, lasting an average of two years, and usually follow at least four years of intensiveyeshiva study, which involves rigorous religious and Talmudic learning.
In achievingsemikhah, rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevantTalmudicsugyas and their development by theRishonimandAcharonim (early and late medieval commentators), leading to their application inHalakha—particularly as traced by theArba'ah Turim. Building on this is the study of those sections of theShulchan Aruch—together with itsmain commentaries—that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher, Shabbat, and the laws offamily purity). An element ofshimush ("apprenticeship") is often also required.
Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at theHesderyeshivas andYeshiva University, respectively, also formally studyhashkafa (i.e., the major elements ofJewish philosophy and theology) and its application to contemporary questions. Their study proceeds systematically through theRabbinic literature; other students will have studied these works independently.
The entrance requirements for an Orthodoxyeshiva include a strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g.,Hebrew,Aramaic, and, in some cases,Yiddish). Specifically, students are expected to have acquiredanalytic skills and wide breadth in Talmud scholarship before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically build upon otheryeshiva studies, those who seeksemikhah are generally not required to have completed a university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University, which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program and a master's degree or equivalent before ordination.
Historically,women were not permitted to become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of "Maharat" (מהר״ת, an abbreviation ofמנהיגה הלכתית רוחנית תורנית,manhiga hilkhatit ruhanit toranit, '[female] leader [of]Halakha, spirituality, [and] Torah'); later, "Rabbi" and "Rabbah" (רבה) were bestowed, as well. This is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (e.g.,Toanot Rabniyot andYoetzet Halacha).[89][90]
While someHaredi Jewish (includingHasidic Jewish)yeshivas do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in Torah and Talmud study without the goal of becoming rabbis or holding official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students seeking to hold the official title of "Rabbi".
Within the Hasidic community, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while a small number of students obtain official ordination to becomedayanim on religious courts,poskim (פוסקים, 'legal decisors'), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-HasidicLitvishyeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmittedroshei yeshiva (ראשי ישיבה, 'heads of yeshiva'), and the majority of students will not become rabbis (even after many years of post-graduatekollel study).
Haredi Jews will often prefer using Hebrew terms for rabbinic titles, includingRav (denoting "rabbi"),HaRav ("the Rabbi"),Moreinu HaRav ("our Teacher, the Rabbi"),Moreinu ("our Teacher"),Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav ("our Teacher and our Rabbi, the Rabbi"),Moreinu VeRabeinu ("our Teacher and our Rabbi"),Rosh Yeshiva ("[the] Head [of the] Yeshiva"),Rosh HaYeshiva ("Head [of] the Yeshiva"), "Mashgiach" (formashgiach ruchani; "spiritual supervisor"),Mora DeAsra ("Teacher [of] the place"),HaGaon ("the Genius"),Rebbe ("Rabbi"),HaTzadik ("the Righteous One"), "ADMOR" ("Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu"; "our Master, our Teacher, and our Rabbi"), orReb, which is a shortened form ofrebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies.
Arebbetzin (aYiddish usage common amongAshkenazim) or arabbanit (inHebrew and used amongSephardim) is the official "title" used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi.Rebbetzin may also be used as an equivalent ofReb and is sometimes abbreviated as such, as well.
Conservative Judaism conferssemikhah after the completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud andHalakha, Conservativesemikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training inTanakh, classical biblical commentaries,biblical criticism,Midrash,Kabbalah, and Hasidut (חסידות, '[works on] piety') the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity,Jewish ethics, the halakhic methodology ofConservative responsa, classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care, chaplaincy, non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with Rabbinic literature, Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to ConservativeHalakha, and the completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination.SeeList of rabbinical schools § Conservative
InReform Judaism, rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, and academic biblical criticism, in addition to the study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students are also required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study, starting from the first year. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openlyLGBTQ people as rabbis andhazzans.SeeList of rabbinical schools § Reform
There are numerous possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by the large Jewish denominations. These are theAcademy for Jewish Religion in New York City,AJR in California,ALEPH, the Jewish Renewal movement's online program,Hebrew College in Boston, andHebrew Seminary inIllinois. The structure and curriculum of these are essentially the same as those at other non-Orthodoxyeshivas.
More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries. These grantsemikhah with lesser requirements in terms of time and a modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These areJewish Spiritual Leaders Institute,Rabbinical Seminary International,Pluralistic Rabbinical Seminary, andAteret Tzvi. TheMesifta Adath Wolkowisk is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate.
Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community's perception of the rabbi's competence to interpret Jewish law and act as a teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy. As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Rabbinic Judaism's disputes withSamaritanism andKaraite Judaism. Thedivisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation in whether rabbis from one denomination recognize the legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another.
As a general rule within Orthodox Judaism and among some in Conservative Judaism, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, a rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of a particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law.
The Orthodox rabbinical establishment rejects the validity of Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist rabbis on the grounds that their movements' teachings violate traditional Jewish tenets. SomeModern Orthodox rabbis are respectful toward non-Orthodox rabbis and focus on commonalities even as they disagree on the interpretation of some areas ofHalakha (with Conservative rabbis) or the authority ofHalakha (with Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis).
Conservative rabbis accept the legitimacy of Orthodox rabbis, though they are often critical of Orthodox positions. Although they would rarely look to Reform or Reconstructionist rabbis for halakhic decisions, they accept the legitimacy of these rabbis' religious leadership.
Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis, on the premise that all the main movements are legitimate expressions of Judaism, will accept the legitimacy of other rabbis' leadership. However, they will not accept their views on Jewish law, since Reform and Reconstructionists rejectHalakha as binding.
These debates cause great problems for the recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according toHalakha. Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize the Jewishness ofpatrilineal Jews—under certain circumstances—as a valid claim towards Judaism. In contrast, Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in theTalmud and halakhic literature that one can be a Jew only throughmatrilineality (i.e., being born to a Jewish mother) or through formal conversion to Judaism.
With few rare exceptions, Jewish women have historically been excluded from serving as rabbis. This changed in the 1970s; coinciding with the shift in American society involvingsecond-wave feminism, theHebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion began ordainingwomen as rabbis.[91] Today, Jewish women serve as rabbis within all progressive branches of Judaism. In contrast, inOrthodox Judaism, women rabbis are a contested matter. However, many communities allow alternate clerical roles for women, such asYoetzet Halacha.[89][90] A variety of modern titles have been coined for female rabbis in Orthodox Judaism, includingRabbah(רבה),Rabbanit(רבנית), andMaharat(מהר"ת).[92]
^Heinz-Josef Fabry entryRab inTheological dictionary of the Old Testament Vol. 13 pp. 273–75 ed. G. Johannes Botterweck,sv:Helmer Ringgren,Fabry 2004 p. 273 "RAB... is also well attested in Phoenician.9 Here too rab functions as a title; its specific meaning can be determined only by its relationship to other offices and functions.10 Aramaic in all its dialects makes copious use of this root."
^Fabry entryRab inTheological dictionary of the Old Testament Volume 13, p. 298 G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry – 2004 "There is no evidence to support an association, commonly cited in discussions of this usage.160 with the use of the title "Rabbi" ... Already suggested byM. Burrows and repeated byCarmignac, 584"
^Siddur Azor Eliyahu, p. 18 (on "Ribbi Yishmael Omer" before Pesukei deZimra). Text with acronyms expanded according to its glossary (parentheses in original, square brackets added based on the glossary):רִבי ישמעאל. בחיריק—כך הוא בכל סידורים ישנים [הכוונה לסידורי אשכנז שנדפסו עד לסידור ר' שבתי סופר מפרעמישלא] (כמו שקלאוו תקמ"ח, דיהרנפורט תקמ"ח, תקנ"ב, תקס"ב, זולצבאך תקנ"ג), כך הוא בהגדה של פסח על ביאור הגר"א שהדפיס רמ"מ משקלאוו בהוראדנא בשנת תקס"ה (וכן הוא בסידורי הספרדים והתימנים). והשינוי לרַבי בפתח הוא משינויי ויעתר יצחק (ספר הגהות על סידור אשכנז וסידור תפילה מאת יצחק סאטאנוב, ברלין תקמ"ד) ובעקבותיו ניקד כן גם ר' וואלף היידנהיים (ויעב"ץ ניקד רְבי בשווא והאריך בזה בלוח ארש). בגמרא מופיע בריבי מלא (מכות ה' ב' חולין פ"ד ב' קל"ז א' שבת קט"ו א' ערובין נ"ג א') וחסר (חולין י"א ב', כ"ח א') ומשמע מכך שאמרו רִבי בחיריק, וגם מפירוש רבינו חננאל (פסחים נ"ב ב' וסוכה מ"ה א') משמע כן.
^abEnglishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament by Wigram, George V.; citing Matthew 26:25, Mark 9:5 and John 3:2 (among others)
^Catherine Hezser,The social structure of the rabbinic movement in Roman Palestine, 1997, p. 59 "b – Rabbi as an Honorary Address ... Since Jesus was called "Rabbi" but did not conform to the traditional image of post-70 Jewish rabbis, and since pre-70 sages do not bear the title "Rabbi" in the Mishnah, 29 most scholars assume that the meaning and usage of the term "Rabbi" at the time of Jesus differed from the meaning which it acquired after the destruction of the Temple: in pre-70 times, "Rabbi" was used as an unofficial honorary address for any person held in high esteem; after 70 it was almost exclusively applied to ordained teachers of the Law."
^Hezser, Catherine (1997).The Social Structure of the Rabbinic Movement in Roman Palestine. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 64–.ISBN978-3-16-146797-4.Archived from the original on February 8, 2018.We suggest that the avoidance of the title "Rabbi" for pre-70 sages may have originated with the editors of the Mishnah. The editors attributed the title to some sages and not to others. The avoidance of the title for pre-70 sages may perhaps be seen as a deliberate program on the part of these editors who wanted to create the impression that the "rabbinic movement" began with R. Yochanan b. Zakkai and that the Yavnean "academy" was something new, a notion that is sometimes already implicitly or explicitly suggested by some of the traditions available to them. This notion is not diminished by the occasional claim to continuity with the past which was limited to individual teachers and institutions and served to legitimize rabbinic authority.
^Zef Eleff,Modern Orthodox Judaism: A Documentary History, p. 247, quote: "In the 1980s, rabbis and congregants replaced the "scholar-rabbi" with the "pastor-rabbi." With greater frequency, rabbinic search committees asked Orthodox seminaries to supply them with candidates who possessed excellent pastoral skills and deemphasized the importance of intellectual attainment."
^Jeffrey I. Roth,Inheriting the Crown in Jewish Law: The Struggle for Rabbinic Compensation, Tenure and Inheritance Rights, Univ. of So. Carolina Press, 2006, p. 5.
^Jewish Encyclopedia,"RABBI".JewishEncyclopedia.com.Archived from the original on January 31, 2017. RetrievedJanuary 1, 2017..
^Kirschenbaum, Aaron (1993). "MARA DE-ATRA: A Brief Sketch".Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought.27 (4):35–40.JSTOR23260883.
^Friedman, M. (2004). Halachic rabbinic authority in the modern open society. Jewish Religious Leadership, Image, and Reality, 2, 757–770.
^John Corrigan, Frederick Denny, Martin S. Jaffee, and Carlos Eire.Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. New York: Routledge, 2012, 124–128
^abNadell, P. S. (2019).Paving the Road to Women Rabbis. Gender and Religious Leadership: Women Rabbis, Pastors, and Ministers, 89.
^abIsrael-Cohen, Y. (2012). "Chapter Five: Orthodox Women Rabbis? It's Only a Matter of Time". InBetween Feminism and Orthodox Judaism (pp. 69–78). Brill.
^Some also connect it to Mishnaic Hebrewרֶבִּיrebbī, (Kaufmann A50 RH 2:12)/רִבִּיrībbī (Parma A RH 2:12) 'my master' but this term is extremely rare in ancient texts.[5]
Aaron Kirchenbaum,Mara de-Atra: A Brief Sketch, Tradition, Vol. 27, No. 4, 1993, pp. 35–40.
Aharon Lichtenstein,The Israeli Chief Rabbinate: A Current Halakhic Perspective, Tradition, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1992, pp. 26–38.
Jeffrey I. Roth,Inheriting the Crown in Jewish Law: The Struggle for Rabbinic Compensation, Tenure and Inheritance Rights, Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2006.
S. Schwarzfuchs,A Concise History of the Rabbinate, Oxford, 1993.
