Map of theArabian Peninsula in 600 AD, showing the various Arab tribes and their areas of settlement. TheLakhmids (yellow) formed an Arab monarchy as clients of theSasanian Empire, while theGhassanids (red) formed an Arab monarchy as clients of theRoman Empire A map published by the British academic Harold Dixon duringWorld War I, showing the presence of the Arab tribes inWest Asia, 1914
TheQuraysh (Arabic:قُرَيْشٍ) were anArab tribe who controlledMecca before the rise ofIslam. Their members were divided into ten main clans, most notably including theBanu Hashim, into which Islam's founder prophetMuhammad was born. By the seventh century, they had become wealthy merchants, dominating trade between theIndian Ocean,East Africa, and theMediterranean.[1] The tribe ran caravans toGaza andDamascus in summer and toYemen in winter, while also mining and pursuing other enterprises on these routes.[2]
When Muhammadbegan preaching Islam in Mecca, the Quraysh initially showed little concern. However, their opposition to his activities quickly grew as he increasingly challengedArab polytheism, which was prevalent throughoutpre-Islamic Arabia.[3][4][5] As relations deteriorated, Muhammad andhis followers migrated toMedina (the journey known as theHijrah) after negotiating with theBanu Aws and theBanu Khazraj to mediate their conflict.[6][7] However, the two sides proved unable to reach a peaceful resolution, and the Quraysh continued to obstruct Muhammad's community's attempts to perform theIslamic pilgrimage at Mecca, prompting him to confront them through armed conflict, primarily by conducting raids on their caravans.[8] These raids eventually escalated into several major battles, including those atBadr,Uhud, and "the Trench" (Medina's outskirts).[9] Following these engagements and changes in Medina's political landscape, including the expulsion of threeJewish tribes, Muhammad reportedly shifted the focus ofhis military campaigns from Quraysh caravans to the northern Arab tribes, such as theBanu Lahyan and theBanu Mustaliq.[10]
As Muhammad's position in Medinabecame more established, attitudes towards him in his hometown became more approving. TheTreaty of al-Hudaybiya formalized a ten-year truce (beginning in March 628) with the Quraysh and allowed Muhammad to performUmrah in Mecca in the following year. During this pilgrimage, Muhammad reconciled with his clan, as symbolized by his marriage toMaymuna bint al-Harith. Further, several prominent Meccans, such asKhalid ibn al-Walid andAmr ibn al-As, recognized Muhammad's increasing influence in Arab society andconverted to Islam, thereafter coming to play a pivotal role in theearly Muslim conquests.[11]
According to Muslim sources, the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya was broken by the Quraysh approximately two years after it was ratified; a belligerent party within the tribe, acting against the advice of their chiefAbu Sufyan, had supported one of their client clans in a conflict against theBanu Khuza'ah, who were allied with Muhammad, prompting him to march with an army of 10,000 men to besiege Mecca. Confronted by the incoming force, Abu Sufyan and others, including Muhammad's allyKhuza'i Budayl ibn Warqa, met with Muhammad to request amnesty for all Quraysh members who did not resist his advance. Thus, Muhammad and his troopsentered Mecca virtually unopposed, and almost all of the city's inhabitants converted to Islam.[12] After Muhammad's death in 632,leadership of the Muslim community traditionally passed to a person belonging to the Quraysh, as was the case with theRashidun, theUmayyads, and theAbbasids, and purportedly with theFatimids.
Sources differ as to the etymology of Quraysh, with one theory holding that it was the diminutive form ofqirsh (shark).[13] The Arab genealogistHisham ibn al-Kalbi asserted that there was no eponymous founder of Quraysh;[14] rather, the name stemmed fromtaqarrush, anArabic word meaning "a coming together" or "association". The Quraysh gained their name whenQusayy ibn Kilab, a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of theKaaba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives.[15] Thenisba or surname of the Quraysh isQurashī, though in the early centuries of the IslamicUmmah, most Qurayshi tribesmen were denoted by their specific clan instead of the tribe. Later, particularly after the 13th century, claimants ofQurayshiya descent used theQurashī surname.[13]
The Quraysh'sprogenitor wasFihr ibn Malik, whose full genealogy, according to traditional Arab sources, was the following: Fihr ibn Malik ibn al-Nadr ibn Kinana ibn Khuzayma ibn Mudrika ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma'add ibn Adnan.[15] Thus, Fihr belonged to theKinana tribe and his descent is traced toAdnan theIshmaelite, the semi-legendary father of the "northern Arabs". According to the traditional sources, Fihr led the warriors of Kinana andKhuzayma in defense of the Kaaba, at the time a major pagan sanctuary in Mecca, against tribes fromYemen; however, the sanctuary and the privileges associated with it continued to be in the hands of the YemeniKhuza'a tribe. The Quraysh gained their name whenQusayy ibn Kilab, a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Kaaba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives.[15]
All medieval Muslim sources agree that Qusayy unified Fihr's descendants, and established the Quraysh as the dominant power in Mecca.[16] After conquering Mecca, Qusayy assigned quarters to different Qurayshi clans. Those settled around the Kaaba were knownQuraysh al-Biṭāḥ ('Quraysh of the Hollow'), and included all of the descendants ofKa'b ibn Lu'ayy and others. The clans settled in the outskirts of the sanctuary were known asQuraysh al-Ẓawāhir ('Quraysh of the Outskirts'). According to historianIbn Ishaq, Qusayy's younger son,Abd Manaf, had grown prominent during his father's lifetime and was chosen by Qusayy to be his successor as the guardian of the Kaaba. He also gave other responsibilities related to the Kaaba to his other sonsAbd al-Uzza and Abd, while ensuring that all decisions by the Quraysh had to be made in the presence of his eldest sonAbd al-Dar; the latter was also designated ceremonial privileges such as keeper of the Qurayshi war banner and supervisor of water and provisions to the pilgrims visiting the Kaaba.[17]
According to historianF. E. Peters, Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in the time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Kaaba, and "what pass[ed] for municipal offices [designated by Qusayy] have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine".[18] During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be the strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leadingshaykhs (tribal chieftains).[19]
According to historianGerald R. Hawting, if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, "must have lived in the second half of the fifth century".[20] However, historianW. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of the 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed theAbd al-Dar clan, including the clans ofBanu Sahm,Banu Adi,Banu Makhzum andBanu Jumah, became known asal-Aḥlāf ('the Confederates'), while those who backed theAbd Manaf clan, including theBanu Taym,Banu Asad,Banu Zuhra andBanu al-Harith ibn Fihr, were known asal-Muṭayyabūn ('the Perfumed').[13]
Toward the end of the 6th century, theFijar War broke out between the Quraysh and theKinana on one side and variousQaysi tribes on the other, including theHawazin,Banu Thaqif,Banu Amir andBanu Sulaym. The war broke out when a Kinani tribesman killed an Amiri tribesman escorting aLakhmid caravan to the Hejaz. The attack took place during the holy season when fighting was typically forbidden. The Kinani tribesman's patron wasHarb ibn Umayya, a Qurayshi chief. This patron and other chiefs were ambushed by the Hawazin at Nakhla, but were able to escape. In the battles that occurred in the following two years, the Qays were victorious, but in the fourth year, the tide turned in favor of the Quraysh and Kinana. After a few more clashes, peace was reestablished.[21] According to Watt, the actual aim in the Fijar War was control of the trade routes ofNajd. Despite particularly tough resistance by the Quraysh's main trade rivals, the Thaqif ofTa'if, and the Banu Nasr clan of Hawazin, the Quraysh ultimately held sway over western Arabian trade.[22] The Quraysh gained control over Ta'if's trade, and many Qurayshi individuals purchased estates in Ta'if, where the climate was cooler.[15]
The sanctuary village of Mecca developed into a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh "were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other".[15] Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans toGaza,Bosra,Damascus andal-Arish in the summer.[15][23] The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of theBedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in theHejaz (western Arabia).[23] In the words ofFred Donner:
[By the end of the 6th century,] Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade [the Quraysh] had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in "buying cheap and selling dear," but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short, a class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia.[24]
The Banu Makhzum andBanu Umayya, in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics.[23] The Banu Umayya and theBanu Nawfal, another clan descending from Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from theal-Muṭayyabūn faction in 605 and engaged in business with theal-Aḥlāf.[13] Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own.[13] During a commercial incident where a Yemenite merchant was robbed of his trade by al-As ibn Wa'il al-Sahmi, theal-Muṭayyabūn reformed in theHilf al-Fudul, which consisted of theBanu Hashim andBanu Muttalib, which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of Abd Manaf, and the Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans.[13] The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Kaaba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan.[20] According to Watt, "In all the stories of thepre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating is uncertain."[13]
The Quraysh, the dominant tribe ofMecca, initially showed little concern when Muhammad began preachinghis new faith in the city. However, as Muhammad's message increasingly challenged traditional Meccan religious and social practices, tensions gradually arose.[3][5] As relations with the Quraysh deteriorated, Muhammad coordinated the gradual emigration of his followers toMedina, eventually making the journey himself, after negotiations with various factions in Medina had established a base of support there. This event, known as theHijra, followed complex negotiations with different groups in Medina, where Muhammad was seen as a potential mediator for ongoing tribal conflicts, though his role was likely more multifaceted than just mediation. In Medina, Muhammad received a divine revelation allowing Muslims to defend themselves, which included targeting Quraysh trade caravans in response to their ongoing hostility and persecution.[25]
After obtaining spoils froma caravan at Nakhla, Muhammad learned of a larger Quraysh caravan returning fromGaza. He attempted to intercept it, but the caravan rerouted. Instead, Muhammad encountered Quraysh troops led byAmr ibn Hisham,[25] and despite being outnumbered, won theBattle of Badr, gaining prestige and followers.[26]
The Quraysh defeat at Badr was significant, causing them to lose many of their influential or experienced men and their prestige.[26] Seeking to restore their honor, the Quraysh, led byAbu Sufyan, mobilized 3,000 troops to confront Muhammad, resulting in theBattle of Uhud. Initially, Muhammad's forces had the upper hand, but a setback occurred when his archers abandoned their positions and pursued the fleeing Meccan soldiers. The Meccan military strategistKhalid ibn al-Walid exploited this and Muhammad's forces retreated. The Quraysh did not pursue further, considering their objective achieved.[10]
In Medina, someJewish tribes expressed satisfaction at Muhammad's defeat, prompting him to target theBanu Nadir, driving them toKhaybar and other settlements, and seizing their property. The Quraysh, with their caravans still under attack and urged by the Jews in Khaybar, recognized the importance of occupying Medina. They negotiated with variousBedouin tribes and managed to raise 10,000 troops.[10]
To defend against the Quraysh troops, Muhammad, advised by one of his followers, ordered a trench to be dug around Medina. This led to theBattle of the Trench. The trench hampered the Quraysh advance, and Muhammad conducted secret negotiations with theGhatafan to induce distrust among his enemies. Unfavorable weather eventually caused the besiegers to lose morale and retire.
Afterwards, Muhammad turned his attention to theBanu Qurayza, who were accused of betraying the Muslims by conspiring with the Quraysh. Following a siege, their men were judged to be executed, while the women and children were taken captive. This event marked a significant turning point, with Muhammad consolidating his control in Medina. Muhammad's focus then shifted to other tribes, such as theBanu Lahyan andBanu Mustaliq. TheBanu Mustaliq were defeated in battle, with many captives later freed.[11]
Over time, tensions between Muhammad and the people of Mecca eased, leading to theTreaty of al-Hudaybiya, a ten-year armistice. Muhammad and his followers were then allowed to performUmrah next year in Mecca. A short time later, Muhammad attacked the Jewish-inhabited Khaybar, where he instituted a practice that set a precedent for Muslims later on towards Jews and Christians, namelyjizya.[11] He did not slaughter those who surrendered but let them stay and tend their fields, with half the produce going to him and his followers.[27] The Jewish colony ofWadi al-Qura also came into his possession with this expedition, making the Muslim community rich.[11]
In early 627, Muhammad undertook the Umrah known as the 'fulfilled pilgrimage' in Mecca, during which time he reconciled with his family, theBanu Hashim, which was sealed by marryingMaymuna bint al-Harith. Some important people of Mecca, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid andAmr ibn al-As, recognized Muhammad as a man of the future in Arabia and converted to Islam. In December 629, after the belligerent party in Mecca, against the advice of Abu Sufyan, decided to support one of their client clans against the Khuzaa, who were allied with Muhammad, resulting in a violation of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, Muhammad then set out with his army to Mecca. With those willing to fight from the Mecca side becoming fewer and fewer, Abu Sufyan set out with several others, including Muhammad's friend, Budayl ibn Warqa al-Khuza’i, to ask for amnesty for all the Quraysh who abandoned armed resistance. Muhammad thus managed to enter Mecca unopposed, and almost all the inhabitants adopted Islam.[12]
In 630, Muhammadentered Mecca victoriously, prompting the rest of Quraysh to embrace Islam. Muhammad sought to consolidate the unity of his expanding Muslim community by "winning over this powerful group [the Quraysh]", according to Donner; to that end he guaranteed Qurayshi participation and influence in the nascent Islamic state. Thus, despite their long enmity with Muhammad, the Quraysh were brought in as political and economic partners and became a key component in the Muslim elite. Many leading Qurayshi tribesmen were installed in key government positions and in Muhammad's policy-making circle.[28] According to Donner, the inclusion of Quraysh "in the ruling elite of the Islamic state was very probably responsible for what appears to be the more carefully organized and systematic approach to statesmanship practiced by Muhammad in the closing years of his life, as the organizational skills of the Quraysh were put to use in the service of Islam".[29]
With Muhammad's death in 632, rivalry emerged between the Quraysh and the two other components of the Muslim elite, theAnsar and the Thaqif, over influence in state matters.[30] The Ansar wanted one of their own to succeed the prophet ascaliph, but were persuaded byUmar to agree to Abu Bakr.[13] During the reigns of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644), some of the Ansar were concerned about their political stake.[31] The Quraysh apparently held real power during this period marked by theMuslim conquests. During theFirst Fitna, the Ansar, who backed CaliphAli of the Banu Hashim against two factions representing rival Qurayshi clans, were defeated. They were subsequently left out of the political elite, while theThaqif maintained a measure of influence by dint of their long relationship with the Quraysh.[32]
Ahadith holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of theKharijites.[13] Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh.[32] In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented byMu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such asal-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of the Banu Asad andTalha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym.[33] Later, during theSecond Fitna, these same factions again fought for control of thecaliphate, with theUmayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/693. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, theAbbasids, a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of the Banu Umayya. Afterward, Islamic leadership was contested between different branches of the Banu Hashim.[34]
Fück, J. W. (1965). "Fidjār". In Lewis, B; Pellat, Ch; Schacht, J. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. 2C–G (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. pp. 883–884.ISBN90-04-07026-5.
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