Quantitative geography is a subfield andmethodological approach togeography that develops, tests, and uses scientific, mathematical, and statistical methods to analyze and model geographic phenomena and patterns.[1][2][3] It aims to explain and predict the distribution and dynamics ofhuman andphysical geography through the collection and analysis of quantifiable data.[4] The approach quantitative geographers take is generally in line with the scientific method, where afalsifiable hypothesis is generated, and then tested throughobservational studies.[3][5][6][7] This has received criticism, and in recent years, quantitative geography has moved to include systematic model creation and understanding the limits of their models.[6][8][9] This approach is used to study a wide range of topics, including population demographics, urbanization, environmental patterns, and the spatial distribution of economic activity.[1] The methods of quantitative geography are often contrasted by those employed byqualitative geography, which is more focused on observing and recording characteristics of geographic place. However, there is increasing interest in using combinations of both qualitative and quantitative methods throughmixed-methods research to better understand and contextualize geographic phenomena.[10]
Quantitative geography emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to the increasing demand for more systematic, empirical, and data-driven approaches to studying geographic phenomena.[6] It is a direct product of thequantitative revolution in geography.[1][11]
It was influenced by developments in statistics, mathematics, computer science, and the physical sciences.[12] Quantitative geographers sought to use mathematical and statistical methods to better understand patterns, relationships, and processes in the spatial distribution of human and physical phenomena.
Computers perhaps had the most profound impact on quantitative geography, with techniques such as map analysis, regression analysis, and spatial statistics to investigate various geographic questions.[1] In the 1950s and 1960s, advances in computer technology facilitated the application of quantitative methods in geography, leading to new techniques such asgeographic information systems (GIS).[13][14] Notable early pioneers in GIS areRoger Tomlinson andWaldo Tobler.[12] Simultaneously, new data sources, such asremote sensing andGPS, were incorporated into geographic research.[15][16] These tools enabled geographers to collect, analyze, and visualize large amounts of spatial data in new ways, further advancing the field of quantitative geography.[1]
In the late 20th century, quantitative geography became a central discipline within geography, and its influence was felt in fields such as urban, economic, and environmental geography.[1] Within academia, groups such as theRoyal Geographical Society Study Group in Quantitative Methods focused on spreading these methods to students and the public through publications such as theConcepts and Techniques in Modern Geography series.[17][18] Economics andspatial econometrics both served as a driving force and area of application for quantitative geography.[19]
Today, research in quantitative geography continues, focusing on using innovative quantitative methods and technologies to address complex geographic questions and problems.
Ingeography, thequantitative revolution (QR)[a] was aparadigm shift that sought to develop a more rigorous and systematic methodology for the discipline. It came as a response to the inadequacy ofregional geography to explain general spatial dynamics. The main claim for the quantitative revolution is that it led to a shift from a descriptive (idiographic) geography to an empirical law-making (nomothetic) geography.[20][21] The quantitative revolution occurred during the 1950s and 1960s and marked a rapid change in the method behind geographical research, from regional geography into aspatial science.[22][23]
Waldo Tobler in front of the Newberry Library. Chicago, November 2007
The concept of laws in geography is a product of the quantitative revolution and is a central focus of quantitative geography.[24] Their emergence is highly influential and one of the major contributions of quantitative geography to the broader branch oftechnical geography.[25] The discipline of geography is unlikely to settle the matter anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most widely accepted. The first law of geography, and its relation to spatial autocorrelation, is highly influential in the development of technical geography.[25]
Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many are proposed as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another.[26] A few of the proposed laws of geography are below:
Arbia's law of geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."[27][28][29]
Uncertainty principle: "that the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements ofvagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."[26]
Critical geography presents critiques against the approach adopted in quantitative geography, sometimes labeled by the critics as a "positivist" approach particularly in relation to the so-called "quantitative revolution" of the 1960s. One of the primary criticisms is reductionism, contending that the emphasis on quantifying data and utilizing mathematical models tends to oversimplify the intricate nature of social and spatial phenomena.[3] Critics also argue that quantitative methods may disregard the unique cultural and historical contexts of specific geographical locations. Critics have likewise argued that reliance on digital mapping tools and technology can restrict the capacity to address certain complex geographical issues and claim that quantitative data collection methods can introduce partiality into the analysis; for example, existing power structures can influence quantitative research by shaping the types of data collected and analyzed.
Quantitative geography has been criticized as being limited in scope because spatial data may not adequately capture certain dimensions of cultural, political, and social relations in human geographies. Lastly, critics emphasize the absence of a critical perspective within this approach, arguing that the unwavering focus on objective and empirical data analysis can divert attention from vital social and political questions, hindering a holistic understanding of geographical issues. The critics argue that these criticisms collectively suggest the need for a more nuanced and context-aware approach in the field of geography.
Quantitative geographers have responded to the criticisms to various degrees, including that the critiques' broad brush and associated labeling are misplaced.
"Quantitative geographers do not often concern themselves with philosophy, and although externally we are often labeled (incorrectly in many cases) as positivists, such a label has little or zero impact on the way in which we prosecute research. We do not, for example, concern ourselves with whether our intended research strategy breaches some tenet of positivist philosophy. Indeed, most of us would have scant knowledge of what such tenets are. As Barnes (2001) observes, for many of us, our first experience with positivism occurs when it is directed at us as a form of criticism."
^During the 1940s–1970s, it was customary to capitalize generalized concept names, especially inphilosophy ("Truth, Kindness, Beauty"), plus using capital letters when namingideologies, movements, or schools of thought. Example: "the Automobile" as a concept, versus "the automobile in a garage"
^abcdefFotheringham, A. Stewart; Brunsdon, Chris; Charlton, Martin (2000).Quantitative Geography: Perspectives on Spatial Data Analysis. Sage Publications Ltd.ISBN978-0-7619-5948-9.
^Taylor, Peter J. (1977).Quantitative Methods in Geography: An introduction to Spatial Analysis. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, inc.ISBN0-88133-072-8.
^Hegarty, Christopher J.; Chatre, Eric (December 2008). "Evolution of the Global Navigation satellite system (GNSS)".Proceedings of the IEEE.96 (12):1902–1917.doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2006090.S2CID838848.
^Jensen, John (2016).Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc. p. 623.ISBN978-0-13-405816-0.
^Webber, M J (1980). "Literature for teaching quantitative geography: technique by, for, but not of geographers".Environment and Planning A.12 (9):1083–1090.Bibcode:1980EnPlA..12.1083W.doi:10.1068/a121083.
^Martinez-Galarraga, Julio; Silvestre, Javier; Tirado-Fabregat, Daniel A. (24 August 2023). "Quantitative Economic Geography and Economic History". In Diebolt, Claude; Haupert, Michael (eds.).Handbook of Cliometrics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-40458-0_119-1.ISBN978-3-642-40458-0. Retrieved15 December 2023.
^Gregory, Derek; Johnston, Ron; Pratt, Geraldine; Watts, Michael J.; Whatmore, Sarah (2009).The Dictionary of Human Geography (5th ed.). US & UK: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 611–12.
^Walker, Robert Toovey (28 Apr 2021). "Geography, Von Thünen, and Tobler's first law: Tracing the evolution of a concept".Geographical Review.112 (4):591–607.doi:10.1080/00167428.2021.1906670.S2CID233620037.
^abcGoodchild, Michael (2004). "The Validity and Usefulness of Laws in Geographic Information Science and Geography".Annals of the Association of American Geographers.94 (2):300–303.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402008.x.S2CID17912938.
