Qizilbash orKizilbash[a] were a diverse array of mainlyTurkoman[b]Shiamilitant groups that flourished inAzerbaijan,[1][2]Anatolia,Kurdistan, theArmenian highlands, and theCaucasus from the late 15th century onwards, and contributed to the foundation of theSafavid dynasty inearly modern Iran.[3][c]
By the 18th-century, anyone involved with the Safavid state—militarily, diplomatically, or administratively—came to be broadly referred to as "Qizilbash". It was eventually applied to some inhabitants of Iran.[4] In the early 19th-century, Shia Muslims from Iran could be referred as "Qizilbash", thus highlighting the influence of the distinctive traits of the Safavids, despite the Iranianshah (king)Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (r. 1797–1834) simultaneously creating aQajar dynastic identity grounded in the pre-Islamic past.[5]
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The word Qizilbash derives from TurkishQızılbaş, meaning "red head". The expression is derived from their distinctive twelve-gored crimson headwear (tāj ortark in Persian; sometimes specifically titled "Haydar's Crown"تاج حیدر /Tāj-e Ḥaydar),[d] indicating their adherence to theTwelve Imams and toShaykh Haydar, the spiritual leader (sheikh) of theSafavid order in accordance with theImamate in Twelver doctrine.[6] The name was originally a pejorative label given to them by theirSunni Ottoman foes, but soon it was adopted as a mark of pride.[7][8]
The origin of the Qizilbash can be dated from the 15th century onward, when the spiritual grandmaster of the movement, Shaykh Haydar (the head of the Safaviyya Sufi order), organized his followers into militant troops. The Qizilbash were originally composed of sevenAzerbaijani-speakingTurkic tribes:Rumlu,Shamlu,Ustajlu,Afshar,Qajar,Tekelu, andZulkadar (Dulkadirs/Dhu’l-Qadar).[e][9][f]
The Qizilbash were a Shia community that emerged under the leadership of the Safavids in the early 15th century.[10]
Connections between the Qizilbash and other religious groups andsecret societies, such as theMazdaki movement in theSasanian Empire, or its more radical offspring, theKhurramites, andTurkic shamanism, have been suggested.[11][12] Of these, the Khurramites were, like the Qizilbash, an earlyghulat group[3] and dressed in red, for which they were termed "the red ones" (Persian:سرخ جامگان,romanized: sarkh jāmegān, Arabic:محمرة,romanized: muḥammirah) by medieval sources.[13] In this context, Turkish scholarAbdülbaki Gölpınarlı sees the Qizilbash as "spiritual descendants of the Khurramites".[3]
The Qizilbash were a coalition of many different tribes of predominantly (but not exclusively)Turkic-speaking background united in their adherence to theSafavid order. Apart fromTurkomans, the Qizilbash also includedKurds,[14]Lurs,Persians, andTalysh after Shah Abbas's military reform in the beginning of the 17th century.
Asmurids (sworn students) of the Safavipirs (spiritual guides), the Qizilbash owed implicit obedience to their leader in his capacity as theirmurshid-e kāmil "supreme spiritual director" and, after the establishment of the kingdom, as theirpadishah (great king). The kingdom's establishment thus changed the purely religiouspir–murid relationship into a political one. As a consequence, any act of disobedience of the Qizilbash Sufis against the order of the spiritual grandmaster (Persian:nāsufigari "conduct unbecoming of a Sufi") became "an act of treason against the king and a crime against the state", as was the case in 1614 when Abbas the Great put some followers to death.[15]
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The Qizilbash adhered toheterodox Shi’i doctrines encouraged by the early Safavi sheikhs Haydar and his sonIsmail I. They regarded their rulers as divine figures, and so were classified asghulat "extremists" by orthodoxTwelvers.[16]
WhenTabriz was taken, there was not a single book on Twelverism among the Qizilbash leaders. The book of the well known Iraqi scholaral-Hilli (1250–1325) was procured in the town library to provide religious guidance to the state.[17] The Qizilbash battle cry was "qurban oldiğim, sadaqa oldiğim, pirüm mürşidim" (قربان اولدیغم، صدقه اولدیغم، پیروم مرشدم), meaning "may I be sacrificed for you, my spiritual guide" inAzerbaijani, and referring to Shah Ismail.[18][19][20][21]
The imported Shi'iulama did not participate in the formation of Safavid religious policies during the early formation of the state. However,ghulat doctrines were later forsaken and Arab Twelverulama fromLebanon,Iraq, andBahrain were imported in increasing numbers to bolster orthodox Twelver practice and belief.
In Turkey, orthodox Twelvers followingJa'fari jurisprudence are called Ja'faris. Although the Qizilbash are also Twelvers, their practices do not adhere to Ja'fari jurisprudence.
Among the Qizilbash,Turcoman tribes from Eastern Anatolia andIranian Azerbaijan who had helpedIsmail I defeat theAq Qoyunlu tribe were by far the most important in both number and influence and the nameQizilbash is usually applied exclusively to them.[27] Some of these greater Turcoman tribes were subdivided into as many as eight or nine clans, including:
Other tribes – such as the Turkman,Bahārlu, Qaramānlu, Warsāk, andBayāt – were occasionally listed among these "seven great uymaqs". Today, the remnants of the Qizilbash confederacy are found among theAfshar, theQashqai,Turkmen,Shahsevan, and others.[29]
Some of these names consist of a place-name with the addition of the Turkish suffix-lu, such as Shāmlu or Bahārlu. Other names are those of oldOghuz tribes such as the Afshār, Dulghadir, or Bayāt, as mentioned by the medievalKarakhanid historianMahmud al-Kashgari.
The non-Turkic Iranian tribes among the Qizilbash were calledTājīks by the Turcomans and included:[27][30]
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The main followers of the Safavids were the Qizilbash from Azerbaijan and Anatolia.[33] In 1501, 7,000 Qizilbash defeated the 30,000-strong army of Sultan Alvand Ak-Koyunlu, and after the coronation in Tabriz, the young Sheikh Ismail became the first Shahanshah of Azerbaijan from the Safavid dynasty.[34][35] Ismail received the main support for his accession to the throne from the Qizilbash,[36] but did not enjoy the same support in Iran and even faced resentment and hatred from the majority of Sunni Iranians.[g] He had to ensure the speedy arrival of the Qizilbash from Asia Minor, since in the eyes of the Persians of Iran he and his supporters were strangers whom they hated.[37] Ismail's success was greatly influenced by his detachment of seven close Qizilbash advisers.,[38]
The rise of the Ottomans put a great strain on the Turkmen tribes living in the area, which eventually led them to join the Safavids, who transformed them into a militant organisation, called the Qizilbash (meaning "red heads" inTurkish), initially a pejorative label given to them by the Ottomans, but later adopted as a mark of pride.[39][8] The religion of the Qizilbash resembled much more the heterodox beliefs of northwestern Iran and eastern Anatolia, rather than the traditionalTwelver Shia Islam. The beliefs of the Qizilbash consisted of non-Islamic aspects, varying from crypto-Zoroastrian beliefs toshamanistic practises, the latter which had been practised by theirCentral Asian ancestors.[8]
However, a common aspect that all these heterodox beliefs shared was a form ofmessianism, devoid of the restrictions of the Islam practiced inurban areas. Concepts ofdivine inspiration andreincarnation were common, with the Qizilbash viewing their Safavid leader (whom they calledmorshed-e kamel, "the Perfect Guide") as the reincarnation ofAli and a manifestation of thedivine in human form.[40] There were a total of seven major Qizilbash "tribes", each named after an area they identified themselves with; the Rumlu presumably came fromRum (Anatolia); theShamlu from Sham (Syria); the Takkalu from the Takkeh in southeastern Anatolia; the Ostajlu from Ostaj in the southernCaucasus. It is uncertain if theAfshar andQajar were named after an area in Azerbaijan, or after their ancestors. All these tribes shared a common lifestyle, language, faith, and animosity towards the Ottomans.[41]
In the 15th century,Ardabil was the center of an organization designed to keep the Safavi leadership in close touch with its murids in Azerbaijan, Iraq, Eastern Anatolia, and elsewhere. The organization was controlled through the office ofkhalīfāt al-khulafā'ī who appointed representatives (khalīfa) in regions where Safavi propaganda was active. Thekhalīfa, in turn, had subordinates termedpira. The Safavi presence in eastern Anatolia posed a serious threat to theOttoman Empire because they encouraged the Shi'i population of Asia Minor to revolt against the sultan.
In 1499, Ismail, the young leader of the Safavi order, left Lahijan for Ardabil to make a bid for power. By the summer of 1500, about 7,000 supporters from the local Turcoman tribes ofAsia Minor (Anatolia),Syria, and theCaucasus – collectively called "Qizilbash" by their enemies – rallied to his support inErzincan.[42] Leading his troops on a punitive campaign against the Shīrvanshāh (ruler ofShirvan), he sought revenge for the death of his father and his grandfather in Shīrvan. After defeating the ShīrvanshāhFarrukh Yassar and incorporating his kingdom, he moved south into Azarbaijan, where his 7,000 Qizilbash warriors defeated a force of 30,000Aq Qoyunlu under Alwand Mirzā[43] and conqueredTabriz. This was the beginning of the Safavid state.
By 1510, Ismail and his Qizilbash had conquered the whole of Iran and theRepublic of Azerbaijan,[44] southernDagestan (with its important city ofDerbent),Mesopotamia,Armenia,Khorasan,Eastern Anatolia, and had made theGeorgian kingdoms ofKartli andKakheti his vassals.[45][46] Many of these areas were priorly under the control of theAk Koyunlu.
The rivalry between the Turkic clans and the Persian nobles was a major problem in the Safavid kingdom. AsV. Minorsky put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Turcomans"were no party to the national Persian tradition". Shah Ismail tried to solve the problem by appointing Persianwakils as commanders of Qizilbash tribes. The Turcomans considered this an insult and brought about the death of 3 of the 5 Persians appointed to this office – an act that later inspired the deprivation of the Turcomans by Shah Abbas I.[47]
In 1510 Shah Ismail sent a large force of the Qizilbash toTransoxiania to fight theUzbeks. The Qizilbash defeated the Uzbeks and securedSamarkand at theBattle of Marv. However, in 1512, an entire Qizilbash army was annihilated by the Uzbeks after Turcoman Qizilbash had mutinied against their Persianwakil and commanderNajm-e Thani at theBattle of Ghazdewan.[47] This defeat put an end to Safavid expansion and influence in Transoxania and left the northeastern frontiers of the kingdom vulnerable to nomad invasions, until some decades later.
Meanwhile, the Safaviddawah continued in Ottoman areas – with great success. Even more alarming for the Ottomans was the successful conversion of Turcoman tribes in Eastern Anatolia, and the recruitment of these well-experienced and feared fighters into the growing Safavid army. To stop Safavid propaganda,Sultan Bayezid II deported large numbers of the Shi'i population ofAsia Minor toMorea. However, in 1507, Shah Ismail and the Qizilbash overran large areas ofKurdistan, defeating regional Ottoman forces. Two years later, the Qizilbash defeated theUzbeks atMerv in Central Asia, killing their leaderMuhammad Shaybani and destroying his dynasty. His head was sent to the Ottoman sultan as a warning.
In 1511, a pro-Safavid revolt known as theŞahkulu rebellion broke out inTeke. An imperial army that was sent to suppress it was defeated. Ismail sought to turn the chaos within the Ottoman Empire to his advantage and moved the border westwards in Asia Minor. The Qizilbash defeated a large Ottoman army underKoca Sinan Pasha. Shocked by this heavy defeat,Sultan Selim I, the new ruler, decided to invade with a force of 200,000 Ottomans. In addition, he ordered the persecution ofAlevis[48][49] and massacred its adherents in the Ottoman Empire.[50]
On 20 August 1514 (1stRajab 920 A.H.), the two armies met at Chaldiran in northwestern Iran. The Ottomans, who were equipped with both firearms and cannon, were reported to outnumber the Qizilbash as much as three to one. The Qizilbash were badly defeated;[51] casualties included many high-ranking Qizilbashamirs as well as three influentialulamā.
This defeat destroyed Shah Ismail's belief in his own invincibility and divine status. It also fundamentally altered the relationship between themurshid-e kāmil and hismurids (followers).
Ismail I tried to reduce the power of theTurcomans by appointingIranians to the vakil office. However, the Turcomans did not like having an Iranian to the most powerful office of theSafavid Empire and kept murdering many Iranians who were appointed to that office.[52] After the death of Ismail, the Turkomans managed to seize power from the Iranians, they were however, defeated byTahmasp I, the son of Ismail who got rid of the Turcomans.[53]
For almost ten years after the Battle of Chaldiran, rival Qizilbash factions fought for control of the kingdom. In 1524, 10-year-old ShahTahmasp I, the governor ofHerat, succeeded his father Ismail. He was theward of the powerful Qizilbashamir Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled "Div Soltān") who was thede facto ruler of the Safavid kingdom.[54] However, Tahmasp managed to reassert his authority over the state and over the Qizilbash.
During the reign of Shah Tahmasp, the Qizilbash fought a series of wars on two fronts and – with the poor resources available to them – successfully defended their kingdom against theUzbeks in the east, and against the arch-rivals of the Safavids – theOttomans – in the west.[55] With thePeace of Amasya (1555), peace between Safavids and Ottomans remained for the rest of Tahmasp's reign.[56] During Tahmasp' reign, he carried out multiple invasions in theCaucasus which had been incorporated in theSafavid empire since Shah Ismail I and for many centuries afterward, and started with the trend of deporting and moving hundreds of thousands ofCircassians,Georgians, andArmenians to Iran's heartlands. Initially only solely put in the royal harems, royal guards, and several other specific posts of the Empire, Tahmasp believed he could eventually reduce the power of the Qizilbash, by creating and fully integrating a new layer in Iranian society with these Caucasian elements and who would question the power and hegemony of the tribal Qizilbash. This included the formation of a military slave system,[57] similar to that of the neighboringOttoman Empire – theJanissaries.[58] Tahmasp's successors, and most importantly ShahAbbas I (r. 1588–1629), would significantly expand this policy when during the reign of Abbas I alone some 200,000 Georgians, 300,000 Armenians and many tens of thousands of Circassians were relocated to Iran's heartlands.[59][60][61][62][63] By this creation of a so-called "third layer" or "third force" in Iranian society composed of ethnic Caucasians, and the complete systematic disorganisation of the Qizilbash by his personal orders, Abbas I eventually fully succeeded in replacing the power of the Qizilbash, with that of the Caucasian ghulams. These new Caucasian elements (the so-calledghilman / غِلْمَان /"servants"), almost always after conversion to Shi'ism depending on given function would be, unlike the Qizilbash, fully loyal only to the Shah. This system of mass usage of Caucasian subjects continued to exist until the fall of theQajar dynasty.
The inter-tribal rivalry of the Turcomans, the attempt of Persian nobles to end the Turcoman dominance, and constant succession conflicts went on for another 10 years after Tahmasp's death. This heavily weakened the Safavid state and made the kingdom vulnerable to external enemies: the Ottomansattacked in the west, whereas the Uzbeks attacked the east.
In 1588,Shah Abbas I came to power. He appointed the Governor ofHerat and his former guardian and tutor, Alī Quli Khān Shāmlū (also known asHājī Alī Qizilbāsh Mazandarānī) the chief of all the armed forces. Later on, events of the past, including the role of the Turcomans in the succession struggles after the death of his father, and the counterbalancing influence of traditionalIthnāʻashari ShiaSayeds, made him determined to end the dominance of the untrustworthy Turcoman chiefs in Persia which Tahmasp had already started decades before him. In order to weaken the Turcomans – the important militant elite of the Safavid kingdom – Shah Abbas further raised a standing army, personal guard, Queen-Mothers,Harems and full civil administration from the ranks of theseghilman who were usually ethnicCircassians,Georgians, andArmenians, both men and women, whom he and his predecessors had taken captive en masse during their wars in the Caucasus, and would systematically replace the Qizilbash from their functions with converted Circassians and Georgians. The new army and civil administration would be fully loyal to the king personally and not to the clan-chiefs anymore.[43]
The reorganisation of the army also ended the independent rule of Turcoman chiefs in the Safavid provinces, and instead centralized the administration of those provinces.
Ghulams were appointed to high positions within the royal household, and by the end of Shah Abbas' reign, one-fifth of the high-rankingamirs were ghulams.[27] By 1598 already an ethnicGeorgian from Safavid-ruled Georgia, well known by his adopted Muslim name after conversion,Allahverdi Khan, had risen to the position of commander-in-chief of all Safavid armed forces.[64] and by that became one of the most powerful men in the empire. The offices ofwakil andamir al-umarā fell in disuse and were replaced by the office of aSipahsālār (Persian:سپهسالار,lit. 'master of the army'), commander-in-chief of all armed forces – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – and usually held by a Persian (Tādjik) noble.
The Turcoman Qizilbash nevertheless remained an important part of the Safavid executive apparatus, even though ethnic Caucasians came to largely replace them. For example, even in the 1690s, when ethnicGeorgians formed the mainstay of the Safavid military, the Qizilbash still played a significant role in the army.[65] TheAfshār andQājār rulers of Persia who succeeded the Safavids, stemmed from a Qizilbash background. Many other Qizilbash – Turcoman and Non-Turcoman – were settled in far eastern cities such asKabul andKandahar during the conquests ofNader Shah, and remained there as consultants to the newAfghan crown after the Shah's death. Others joined theMughal emperors of India and became one of the most influential groups of the Mughal court until theBritish conquest of India.[citation needed]
Qizilbash inAfghanistan primarily live in urban areas, such asKabul,Kandahar orHerat. Some of them are descendants of the troops left behind byNadir Shah.[h][i] Others however were brought to the country during theDurrani rule,[66]Zaman Shah Durrani had over 100,000 cavalry, consisting mostly of Qizilbash.[j] Afghanistan's Qizilbash held important posts in government offices in the past, and today engage in trade or are craftsmen. Since the creation ofAfghanistan, they constitute an important and politically influential element of society. Estimates of their population vary from 30,000 to 200,000.[k][l]
SirMountstuart Elphinstone described the Qizilbash of Kabul in the beginning of the 19th century as"a colony of Turks," who spoke"Persian, and among themselves Turkish."[67] Described as learned, affluent, and influential, they appear to have abandoned their native Turkish language in favour of Persian, and became"in fact Persianized Turks".[67] LadyFlorentia Sale (wife of SirRobert Henry Sale) andVincent Eyre – both companions of Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone – described the Qizilbash of Afghanistan also as"Persians, of Persian descent, or descendant of the Persians, wearing a red cap".[68][69]
The influence of the Qizilbash in the government created resentment among the rulingPashtun clans, especially after the Qizilbash openly allied themselves with the British during theFirst Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842). DuringAbdur Rahman Khan's massacre of the Shi'i minorities in Afghanistan, the Qizilbash were declared "enemies of the state" and were persecuted and hunted by the government and by theSunni majority.[70]
Theformer national anthem (2006-2021) of Afghanistan mentioned Qizilbash as an ethnic group in the third line of third stanza.
Ehsan Bayat family belongs to the Qizilbash community of Afghanistan.
The QizilbashSafavid army helpedMughal Emperor, Humayunrecapture the throne of India fromSikandar Shah Suri of theSur Empire. Prominent amongst them (the Qizilbash) wasBairam Khan, the regent and chief mentor toAkbar the Great.[71][72]
The rise of theDurrani Empire in the 18th century started a fierce cold war inAfghanistan, and subsequently a fight forracial supremacy began between the aboriginalPashtuns and theTurkic Qizilbash. This resulted in major migrations of the Qizilbash people out of Afghanistan to thesafe havens of India in order to avoid persecution on political, racial and religious grounds. They migrated in mass numbers and settled inold cities of the current Indian regions ofAwadh,Kashmir andPunjab.[71][72]
The Qizilbash in India areShias by denomination. The Qizilbash of Kashmir use the title,Agha and belong to theSyed caste. The Qizilbash in Awadh use the title,Nawab, which was awarded to them by representatives theBritish crown.[72][71]
Famous Indian poet,Agha Shahid Ali and his family members, includingAgha Shaukat Ali andBegum Zaffar Ali, belonged to the illustriousSyed Agha family, tracing their roots back to the Qizilbash of Afghanistan'sKandahar.[71][72]Amir Qazalbash, another famous Indian poet, also belonged to a Qizilbash family settled inDelhi.
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FollowingShah Abbas's gradual replacement of the Qizilbash in the Safavid military and administrative ranks, and the persecution they faced at the hands of his andShah Safi's policies, the Qizilbash started to turn and rebel against the Safavids. This then led to the empire adopting more classical Twelver beliefs and cooperating with Shi'i scholars in combatting Qizilbash doctrines, eventually causing their decline in favour of a more orthodox interpretation of Twelver Shi'ism.[74][75]
A strip of land fromBabadag in Romania untilDimetoka in Greece is the land of Qizilbash nowadays. This strip includes a part of eastern Bulgaria.[76]Most of the Qizilbash settled inDobruja in large numbers, either voluntarily or by being deported there from Anatolia by the Ottoman authorities between the 15th and 17th centuries.[77] Qizilbash communities are also present inLudogorie (Deliorman).[78][79]
The Qizilbash conceal their real identity, outwardly professing to be orthodox Sunnis to their Turkish or Bulgarian neighbours, or alternatively claim to beBektashis, depending who is addressing them.[78] According to the 1992 census, there were 85,773 Shiites in Bulgaria.[77]
Between the late seventeenth century and 1822, the term "Qizilbash" was also used in Ottoman administrative documents to identify Twelver (Imami) Shiites in what is today Lebanon. The Ottomans were aware they had no link to the Anatolian or Iranian Qizilbash, employing the term only as a means to delegitimize them or justify punitive campaigns against them. In the early eighteenth century, a part of northern Lebanon is even described as the "Kızılbaş mukataa" tax district.[80]
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In Turkey, there is a communityAlevis, which were formed out of Qizilbash groups in Anatolia in the 16th century.[81] Historically, however, it wouldn't be appropriate to use the termAlevi to describe these groups, seeing as it was originally used for descendants of Ali, the fourthRashidun Caliph.[82] In the 19th century, the term was also used in Turkey to refer to the Qizilbash, who were seen as heretics by the Sunni majority.[82] Alevism in Turkey is present among the Turkish, Kurdish, as well as theZaza population. Yet, despite speaking Kurdish and Zaza natively, many of the Alevi tribes still use Turkish as a liturgical language.[83]</ref> The Kurdish Alevis are known locally by the termKızılbaş, associating them with the Qizilbash in the Safavid dynasty, although their exact origins are unclear and subject to debate.[83] Among Bektashis,Kızılbaş is used to refer to groups that are not initiated into the Bektashi order but have similar beliefs. These groups are looked down upon by initiated members of the tariqa.[84]
In the second half of the 19th century, a Western interest in the origins and political orientations of the Qizilbash sparked,[85] resulting in them becoming the target of Western missionaries, who believed that they held Christian views about Jesus. The Qizilbash weren't hostile towards these missionaries and, according to missionary reports, some were willing to listen to their message.[86] In turn, the Ottoman authorities responded by making more efforts to classify the Qizilbash as Muslims, though the Qizilbash did not always accept these efforts, such that they would openly decline them at times. Despite such adversarial interactions, a clear picture of how these groups perceived their relations with the Ottoman government or the Western missionaries has not yet been established.[85] Hans-Lukas Kieser talks about an "Alevi renaissance" which, according to him, took place in theTanzimat period, as well as later, after theYoung Turk Revolution.[87] There are some doubts, though, whether this term is appropriate, due to the scarcity of sources and the diversity of the various Qizilbash-groups.[85]
It has been reported that, among the Ottoman Turks,kızılbaş has become something of a derogatory term and can be applied to groups that aren't necessarily associated with the Kazilbash of Central Asia. The Bektaşi in Turkey are often referred to asKızılbaşi.[88]
10.1007/S10835-017-9273-1
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