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 Depiction of an envoy ofDengzhi, a Qiang ethnic group, from aPortraits of Periodical Offering painting, 6th century CE | |
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| Ancient China |
Qiang (Chinese:羌;pinyin:Qiāng;Wade–Giles:Ch'iang) was a name given to various groups of people at different periods in ancient China. The Qiang people are generally thought to have been ofTibeto-Burman origin,[1][2][3][4][5] though there are other theories.
TheTangut people of theTang,Song andYuan dynasties may be of Qiang descent.[1] The modernQiang people as well asTibetans may also have been descended in part from the ancient Qiang.[6]
According to the Han dynasty dictionaryShuowen Jiezi, the Qiang were shepherds, and the Chinese character for Qiang (羌) was thus formed from the characters for "sheep" (羊) and "man" (人), and pronounced like the word for "sheep".[7][8]Fengsu Tongyi also mentions that character of Qiang was formed from the words "sheep" and "man". Modern scholars have attempted to reconstruct the ancient pronunciation of Qiang: sinologistEdwin Pulleyblank reconstructs it to *kʰiaŋ inMiddle Chinese, whileWilliam H. Baxter andLaurent Sagart reconstruct theOld Chinese name of Qiang as *C.qʰaŋ.[9]
Qiangs are generally believed to beTibeto-Burman speakers, althoughChristopher Beckwith proposes that the word "Qiang" may have anIndo-European etymology and that the Qiang were ofIndo-European origin; Beckwith compares a proposed reconstruction of Qiang to *klaŋ inOld Chinese to theTocharian wordklānk, meaning "to ride, go by wagon", as in "to ride off to hunt from a chariot", so that Qiang could actually mean "charioteer".[10]
According to a legend, the Qiang were partly descended from theYan Emperor, the mythical "Flame Emperor." The Yan Emperor and his tribe were defeated by theYellow Emperor.[11]
The term "Qiang" first appeared onoracle bone inscriptions 3,000 years ago and was used to describe "a people other than one's people."[12] It appears again in theClassic of Poetry in reference toTang of Shang (trad. 1675–1646 BC).[13] They seem to have lived in a diagonal band from northernShaanxi to northernHenan, somewhat to the south of the laterBeidi. They were enemy of theShang dynasty, who mounted expeditions against them, capturing slaves and victims forhuman sacrifice. The Qiang prisoners were skilled in making oracle bones.[14]
This ancient tribe is said to be the progenitor of both themodern Qiang and theTibetan people.[6] There are still many ethnological and linguistic links between the Qiang and the Tibetans.[6] The Qiang tribe expanded eastward and joined theHan people in the course of historical development, while the other branch that traveled southwards, crosses over theHengduan Mountains, and entered theYungui Plateau; some went even farther, toBurma, forming numerous ethnic groups of theTibetan-Burmese language family.[15] Even today, from linguistic similarities, their relative relationship can be seen. They formed the Tibetan ethnicity after the unification of theTubo kingdom.[15] According toFei Xiaotong: "Even if the Qiang people might not be regarded as the main source of the Tibetan people, it is undoubtedly that the Qiang people played a certain role in the formation of Tibetan race".[16]
Shuowen Jiezi indicated that the Qiangs were shepherds from the west and that they were part of theXirong.[8] They had a close relation to theZhou dynasty,[1] and were mentioned in theBook of Documents andRecords of the Grand Historian as one of the allies ofKing Wu of Zhou who defeated the Shang.[17] It has been suggested that the clan ofJiang Yuan, mother ofHouji, a figure of Chinese legends and mythology and an ancestor of the Zhou dynasty, was possibly related to the Qiang, or was Qiang itself.[1][18][19] Some of the ancient groups were called the "Horse-Qiang" or "Many-Horse-Qiang" (Ma Qiang or Duo Ma Qiang), suggesting they may have been horse breeders.[14]
During theHan dynasty, a group of nomads to the southwest ofDunhuang were known as the Chuo Qiang (Chinese:婼羌). They were described in theBook of Han as a people who moved with their livestock in search of water and pasture, made military weapons themselves using iron from the mountains, and possessed bows, lances, short knives, swords and armour.[20] In theWeilüe, other Qiang tribes named were the "Brown Onion", "White Horse", and "Yellow Ox" Qiang.[21] The various tribes of the Qiang formed a confederation against the Han but were defeated.[22]
Later in the Han dynasty, groups of people in the western part ofSichuan were mentioned in theBook of the Later Han as separate branches of the Qiang. A song from one of these groups, the "White Wolf" people, was transcribed in Chinese characters together with Chinese translation, and the language has since been identified as aTibeto-Burman language.[1]
Genetic analyses of ancient Qiang (氐羌,Dī-Qiāng) remains[clarification needed] found high genetic affinity with modernSino-Tibetan-speaking peoples, particularly modernQiang people andHan Chinese, as well as with ancient 'Yellow River farmers' associated with theYangshao culture.[23] Ancient Qiang remains belonged exclusively to paternalhaplogroup O-M175 (O3a).[24]
In the mid-2nd century BCE, elements of theLesser Yuezhi reportedly migrated into southernGansu, where they subsequently merged with the Qiang population.[25]
In 112 BCE, the Han dynasty invaded what is now eastern Tibet with 25,000 cavalry in retaliation for Qiang raiding.[26]
In 61 BCE, the Han court uncovered a conspiracy between theXiongnu and a Qiang noble to attackShanshan andDunhuang. The court sent an envoy, Yiqu Anguo (義渠安國) to assess the tribes, but he instead massacred the Xianling Qiang tribes and more than thirty of their leaders, causing the Western Qiang to rebel. The Han commander,Zhao Chongguo, famously pacified the rebellion in 60 BCE, largely attributed to his use oftuntian or "military-agricultural colonies" to win over the Qiang.[27]
In 42 BCE, the Qiang in theLongxi region rebel and initially defeated the Han forces sent to fight them.[28] However, in 41 BCE, the Han generalFeng Fengshi returned with 60,000 men and crushed the Qiang rebellion.[28]
In 49 CE, the Qiang tribes retook theQinghai region from the Han.[29]
In 57 CE, theShaodang Qiang, a branch of the Western Qiang, led byDianyu raidedJincheng Commandery.[30]
In 59 CE, a Han army defeated Dianyu, forcing him to surrender.[30]
In 77 CE,Miwu, the son of Dianyu, led the Qiang into rebellion.
In 87 CE, Miwu surrendered to the Han. However, he and 800 Qiang chieftains were soon murdered at a banquet by the Colonel Protector of the Qiang, Zhang Yu (張紆). His son,Mitang, led the Qiang to rebel again.
In 101 CE, a Han army defeated Mitang.
In 107 CE,Dianlian of theXianlian Qiang attackedLiang Province. As a result, theProtectorate of the Western Regions was abandoned. The Han court sentDeng Zhi andRen Shang against the invading army, and although the Qiang forces suffered significant casualties, they were defeated atHanyang Commandery. Having achieved victory against the Han army, Dianlian proclaimed himself emperor atBeidi Commandery. Qiang forces now threatened Han territory as far south asHanzhong Commandery and as far east asJi Province.[31][29]
In 109 CE, Dianlian conqueredLongxi Commandery.[32]
In 110 CE, Dianlian defeated and killed the AdministratorZheng Qin inHanzhong Commandery.[32]
In 112 CE, Dianlian died and was succeeded by his sonLianchang. Lianchang was too young to exercise authority and another man of the tribe,Langmo, took charge of strategy. The new regime was significantly less effective under the regent and failed to make any headway against Han forces.[33]
In 116 CE, the Han generalDeng Zun led 10,000Southern Xiongnu cavalry in a raid onLianchang's headquarters from the north. MeanwhileRen Shang attacked from the south and killed Lianchang's wife and children.[33]
In 117 CE,Lianchang was assassinated and forces underRen Shang ended Qiang raids.[34]
In 120 CE, the Qiang chieftainJiwu attackedJincheng Commandery and was defeated by the generalMa Xian.[35]
In 121 CE, the Shaodang Qiang underManu raidedWuwei Commandery but were defeated by the generalMa Xian the following year.[36]
In 140 CE, the Qiang rebelled.[34]
In 142 CE, the Qiang rebellion was put down.[34]
In 167 CE,Duan Jiong conducted an anti-Qiang campaign and massacred Qiang populations as well as settled them outside the frontier.[34]
In 184 CE, Beigong Boyu, a member of the Auxiliary of Loyal Barbarians of Huangzhong, started theLiang Province rebellion. The rebels capturedJincheng and reachedYoufufeng Commandery in 185, and from there carried out raids againstChang'an. A Han army was sent out against them led byHuangfu Song andZhang Wen but they failed to achieve any major victory. In 185, the Han generalDong Zhuo won a battle against Beigong Boyu and the rebels withdrew. Beigong Boyu and Li Wenhou are not mentioned after this, but the rebellion continued anyway when the new Inspector was killed by his own troops. During the rebellion, a half-Qiang,Ma Teng, rose to power as a warlord in Liang province with another warlord,Han Sui.[37]
In 211 CE,Ma Chao, the son of Ma Teng, led a coalition in Guanxi (west ofTong Pass) against the Han chancellor,Cao Cao and was joined by Qiang soldiers. Although the coalition collapsed after theBattle of Tong Pass, some of the Qiang people continued to support Ma Chao in his attempt to retakeLiang province in 213 CE before he was driven out.[38]
In theThree Kingdoms period (220–280), northwestern China became a contested region between theCao Wei andShu Han dynasties, and depending on their circumstances, the local Qiang people sided with one of the two states. Among Shu's strategies during the northern expeditions ofZhuge Liang andJiang Wei was to win the support of the Qiang and other tribes and aid them in their revolts against Wei.[39]
The Qiang were one of theFive Barbarians that founded many of theSixteen Kingdoms during the 4th century and early 5th century. They, along with many other tribal people in northwestern China, participated in the rebellions ofTufa Shujineng (270–279) andQi Wannian (296–299) against theWestern Jin dynasty. As Jin authority collapsed in northern China during theupheaval of the Five Barbarians, the Qiang tribes waivered their allegiances between Jin and theXiongnu-ledHan-Zhao dynasty before they were all subjected to the latter and its successors.[39]
The first and only Qiang-led state of the Sixteen Kingdoms was theLater Qin (384–417), founded by the Yao clan who claimed descent from theShaodang Qiang. In the wake of theFormer Qin's disastrous defeat at theBattle of Fei River, the Qiang general,Yao Chang rebelled and declared himself Everlasting King of Qin in 384. After killing his former ruler,Fu Jian, he captured the Former Qin capital,Chang'an, where he elevated himself to Emperor of (Later) Qin in 386.[39]
In 394, Yao Chang's successor,Yao Xing, crushed the last vestiges of the Former Qin's military, establishing the Later Qin as a major power inGuanzhong. Under his rule, the state reached its zenith as it conqueredLuoyang from theEastern Jin dynasty and vassalized many of its contemporary states. Yao Xing was also an ardentBuddhist and heavily promoted the religion within his state. He welcomed theKuchean monk,Kumārajīva to Chang'an, where he helped translate many Buddhist texts into Chinese. It was also under Qin when the Chinese monk,Faxian, began his pilgrimage toIndia from Chang'an and theMaijishan Grottoes were first constructed.[40]
However, the Later Qin declined during the second half of Yao Xing's reign. Infighting between the princes over the succession to the throne and mounting defeats on the battlefield, particularly to the Xiongnu rebel state,Helian Xia, gradually weakened the state. WhenYao Hong ascended the throne in 416, rebellions sprang up throughout the empire while it came under attack from its neighbours. The Eastern Jin commander,Liu Yu took advantage of the chaos in Later Qin to launch hissecond northern expedition. In 417, Jin forces captured Yao Hong in Chang'an, ending the Later Qin.[40]
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During the period of theNorthern and Southern dynasties, Fan Ye (398–445) wrote a history of the Western Qiang describing traits such as "disheveled hair", folding their coat from the left side, and marriage customs where a widow would either marry her son or the deceased husband's brother. According to Fan, the Qiang lived in tribes and had no unified ruler.[12]
Two minor Qiang polities existed during this period: theDangchang Kingdom in present-dayTanchang County,Gansu andDengzhi, located west of present-dayJiuzhaigou County,Sichuan. The Dangchang Qiang were led by the Liang clan (梁) while the Dengzhi Qiang, also known as the Baishui Qiang (白水羌), were led by the Xiang clan (像/象). Both states were tributaries to the neighbouring Northern and Southern dynasties and lasted until the mid-6th century.[41]
In 446 an ethnic Qiang rebellion was crushed by the Northern Wei. Wang Yu (王遇) was an ethnic Qiang eunuch and he may have been castrated during the rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrate a rebel tribe's young elite. Fengyi prefecture's Lirun town according to theWeishu was where Wang Yu was born, Lirun was to Xi'ans's northeast by 100 miles and modern day Chengcheng stands at its site. Wang Yu patronized Buddhism and in 488 had a temple constructed in his birthplace.[42]
During theTang dynasty, theDangxiang Qiang moved to the region of Xiazhou around modernJingbian County,Shaanxi Province. They eventually founded the state ofWestern Xia (1038–1227 CE) and came to be known as theTanguts. Another group of Qiang migrated south to theMin River in modernSichuan Province. They came to be known as the Ran and Mang who were the ancestors of the modernQiang people.[39]
According to theNew Book of Tang, the "Bod originates from the Qiang." According to theDa Qing yi tong zhi (1735), theTibetan Empire was founded by a branch of the Fa Qiang.[12]
According to thepolymathShen Kuo, the Qiang were noted for producing high quality steel armour.[43]
The Qiang people of Qingtang are skilled at forging armour. The colour of the iron is blue-black, so clear and bright that it can mirror a hair. They use musk-deer leather for the thongs to string it together - it is soft, thin, and tough.[44]
— Shen Kuo
During theYuan dynasty, the term Qiang was replaced by Fan (Bod), and the people of the western plateaus were called "Western Bod". The two terms were used interchangeably until theQing dynasty when Qiang came to refer to those living upstream of theMin River.[12]
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A problematic case is the “Qiang,” which as Wang Mingke has established, is an old Chinese term along the western borderlands for people in the middle, neither Chinese nor Tibetan, neither exclusively agricultural nor purely pastoral, and likely referring to a variety of successive frontier populations. Communities and individuals were not firmly identified with the modern nationality Qiang, by others as well as themselves, until the People’s Republic. Today they are concentrated in Maozhou and Wenchuan and parts of Lixian and Heishui, plus a few in the southernmost part of Songpan. They speak a variety of non-Tibetan dialects in two main forms, Northern and Southern Qiang, but some speak only Chinese.[45]
— Xiaofei Kang
The Qiang did not have surnames until the last few hundred years when they adopted Han Chinese surnames.[46]
The Qiang were first described as nomadic shepherds living in the region of contemporaryGansu andQinghai provinces. Unlike other nomads, the Qiang did not shave their heads and wore their hair loose over their face.[47] At some point prior to the modern era they settled and adopted an agricultural way of life.[48] Due to constant conflict between Qiang tribes and other peoples, the Qiang built numerous stone guard towers with small windows and doors, giving them the moniker of the "Stone Tower Culture". These constructs, described asHimalayan Towers, can be found today in easternTibet andSichuan Province.[49]
Qiang society followed matrilineal descent and it was men who integrated into the women's lineage upon their deaths. Others consider Qiang society to be patrilineal but with high status for women. Marriage was monogamous and forbidden within the same family for three generations. A large entourage fetched the bride and delivered her to the groom's house where the wedding ceremony was held, which involved dancing and drinking highland barley wine. After three days, the bride returned to her parents' house and lived there for a year until the birth of the first child. The men traveled to their wives' residences and worked their land for a long period of time as bride service. Despite the centrality of women in Qiang families, Qiang society was neither matriarchal nor egalitarian. Men held all the important political and religious positions, although there is some evidence that female shamans existed at one point. As in most agricultural societies, women were responsible for domestic and agricultural work while men engaged in construction, transport, and plowing.[48][50]
In the Qiang culture, ram's horn flower represents true love. Young men use the flower to express their love for their beloved.[51]
The Qiang revered the tiger and featured it prominently on their totem poles. White stones (flint stones) were also considered to be sacred and sometimes put on altars or rooftops.Qiang folk religion resemblesanimism andshamanism. It places spiritual belief in the natural features of the landscape and the ability of shamans to contact spirits.[52] The Qiang believed in the door god, the fireplace god, and the house god. The fireplace god was sacrificed to with food near an iron potholder before each meal. An altar in the corner of the main floor facing the door was considered sacred. It showed the financial status of the household with how ornate it was.[53]
The Qiang celebrated the Qiang New Year on the 24th day of the sixth month of the lunar calendar. Now it is fixed on 1 October. The Mountain Sacrifice Festival is held between second and sixth months of the lunar calendar.[53]
Religious ceremonies were performed by shamans known asduangong or xbi in Qiang. Xbi were responsible for initiation ceremonies for young men who reached 18 years of age. The ceremony, known as "sitting on top of the mountain" in Qiang, involves a family ritual sacrificing a sheep or cow and planting three cypress trees on top of a mountain. These shamans were also responsible for passing down Qiang stories as there was no written Qiang language until recently.[54]
In most current scholarship, especially in Chinese, the modern Qiangzu are assumed to be the same as Ancient Qiangzu. However, compared to other Tibeto-Burman speakers, Qiangzu does not have a closer relation to the Ancient Qiang group. Nevertheless they have been designated as Qiangzu by the Chinese government. The arbitrary assignment of Qiang (羌) to a specific ethnic group has created confusion. First, in general, people could hardly avoid making an artificial equivalence between Ancient Qiang and Qiangzu. Since Qiangzu was named in 1950, other Tibeto-Burman speakers or Ancient Qiang descendants show no interest in dating their history back to Ancient Qiang, asking, “How could we (Yi 9,000,000; Tibetan 6,000,000) be descendants of the small Qiangzu?” Moreover, since the assignment of the name Qiangzu, the indigenous culture (Rme/ʐme/ culture) has been strongly shaped by the willing and concomitant necessity of creating a Qiang culture that demonstrates unmerited links to Ancient Qiang. Thirdly, the term Qiang split the Rme people (those using the Rme/ʐme autonym) into two parts. The Rme in Heishui are not considered Qiangzu but Tibetan by the Central Government.[55]
— Maotao Wen
Furthermore, ancient DNA revealed genetic connections between early Di-Qiang (Di and Qiang were historically combined to be one group) and Han Chinese [5], [6].
We identified Mogou to be the earliest ~4000 yr. BP Di-Qiang population, and genetically related to Taojiazhai in sharing up to 100% paternal (O3a) and ~60% maternal (D4, M10, F, Z) haplogroups.
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