 | This articleshould specify the language of its non-English content using{{lang}} or{{langx}},{{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and{{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriateISO 639 code. Wikipedia'smultilingual support templates may also be used - notably suv for Puroik.See why.(October 2024) |
| Puroik | |
|---|---|
| Sulung | |
| pɯh˧˩ ɣut˥ | |
| Pronunciation | [pɯh˧˩ɣut˥] |
| Native to | India,China |
| Region | Arunachal Pradesh |
| Ethnicity | Puroik people |
Native speakers | 20,000 (2011)[1] |
Sino-Tibetan?
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | suv |
| Glottolog | puro1234 |
| ELP | Puroik |
ThePuroik language (previously calledSulung, a derogatory term, by other tribes) is a set oflanguage varieties spoken by thePuroik people ofArunachal Pradesh in India and ofLhünzê County, Tibet, inChina.
Besides their own language, the Puroik also useNishi,Hindi, andAssamese. Literacy is very low, at about 2%. Those who are literate use either theBengali-Assamese script,Devanagari or theLatin alphabet to write Puroik.
Remsangpuia (2008:17) listed a limited number of Puroik villages. Currently, Puroik are seen inhabiting the following districts and circles of Arunachal Pradesh. They also live in Nyishi, Aka, and Miji areas.
According to theEthnologue, Puroik is spoken in 53 villages along the Par River inArunachal Pradesh.
The Puroik are located from the Upper Subansiri Riverdrainage basin (西巴霞区) to the Tawang River drainage basin (Li 2005).[2] Names includepɯh˧˩ɣut˥ (autonym) andsu˥loŋ˧ (Bangni exonym). There are about 3,000 Puroik as of 2002, who are classified as ethnicLhoba by the Chinese government.
Lieberherr (2015)[3] consider Puroik to be adialect chain where geographically distant dialects are mutually unintelligible, whereas dialects located close to each other are mutually intelligible. The internal diversity of Puroik is about equal to that of the WesternKho-Bwa branch.[4] Lieberherr (2015) and Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)[4] list the following dialects of Puroik, provided here in geographical order from east to west.
Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)[4] classify Puroik asKho-Bwa, and has traditionally been considered to be a Sino-Tibetan language. There is some mutual intelligibility withBugun, and Burling (2003) grouped it with Bugun andSherdukpen, and possibly withLish andSartang.
James A. Matisoff (2009)[5] considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language that has undergonesound changes such as:
Lieberherr (2015)[3] also considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language, although he notes that it has likely borrowed from non-Tibetan-Burman languages. However,Roger Blench (2011) considers Puroik to be alanguage isolate.[6]
| Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lateral | ||||||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiceless | p | t̪ | tʃ | k | ʔ | |
| aspirated | pʰ | ||||||
| voiced | b | d̪ | dʒ | ɡ | |||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ɬ | h | ||
| voiced | v | z | |||||
| Rhotic | r | ||||||
| Approximant | w | ɹ | l | j | |||
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| unrounded | rounded | |||
| Close | i | ɯ | u | |
| Mid | e | ə | ɔ | |
| Open | a | |||
The Puroik grammar notes here have been adapted primarily from Tayeng (1990).[8]
Number is not considered a grammatical feature in Puroik. Plurality is expressed, when required to be stated clearly byhuangda, meaning all, many, etc.
There is no grammatical gender in Puroik. However the two sexes are distinguished when necessary. To indicate other relatives and persons the suffix -aphu is added for the male and -amua for the female. Demonstrative, and Interrogative.
Seven cases may be distinguished: Subject (Nominative), Object (Accusative), Instrumental, Dative (Purposive), Ablative, Possessive (Genitive), and Locative.
The Personal Pronoun distinguished three persons (the first person, second person, and third person) and two numbers (singular and plural). The same form is used for both genders.
There are four types of adjectives: adjective of quality, adjective of quantity, demonstrative adjective, interrogative adjective.
Puroik verbs do not indicate number and person. The three principal tenses (present, past, and future), including the indefinite and the continuous are indicated by means of particles used as suffixes. There are four moods: Imperative, potential, conditional, and subjunctive. Imperative uses the suffix -bo, -da, and -ge for commands.Potential uses the suffix -pa to express the ability to perform.Conditional uses -re/-hangra to express obligation.
Adverbs may be distinguished into four classes: Time, place, manner, and interrogative.
The following list of 181 words in three Puroik dialects, in addition to Proto-Puroik (the reconstructedproto-language of the Puroik lects), is from Lieberherr (2015: 280–286). Lieberherr (2015)[3] reconstructs Proto-Puroik, drawing data from theChayangtajo dialect and the newly describedKojo-Rojo andBulu dialects. Forms from theRawa andSaria dialects have also been included.[3]
| Gloss | Puroik (Bulu) | Puroik (Kojo-Rojo) | Puroik (Chayangtajo) | Proto-Puroik |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG (I) | guu | goo | goo | *goo |
| 2SG (you, sg.) | naa | (naŋ) | naa | *naŋ (?) |
| 3SG (he, she) | vɛɛ | wai | wɛɛ | *vai |
| 1PL (we) | (g-rii) | gə-nii | g-rei | *gə-ńei (?) |
| 2PL (you, pl.) | (na-rii) | na-nii | na-rei | *na-ńei (?) |
| 1DU (we two) | gə-se-niʔ/(gə-he-niʔ) | gə-se-nii | gə-sɛ-nii | *gə-se-niʔ (?) |
| imperfective suffix | -na | -na | -na | *-na |
| pretemporal | -ryila | -ruila | -ruila | *-ruila |
| one | [tyi] | [kjuu] | [hui] | *? |
| two | niʔ | (nii) | nii | *niʔ |
| three | ɨm | ɻɨm | ɯk | *ɨm̄ (?) |
| four | vii | wɻei | wɻei | *vɻei |
| five | wuu | woo | wuu | *woo (?) |
| six | rəʔ | rəʔ | rək | *rək |
| seven | mə-ljɛɛ | jei | ljɛɛ | *mə-ljai |
| eight | mə-ljao | jau | (laa) | *mə-ljaa |
| nine | duNgii | duŋgɻee | doŋgɻɛɛ | *doŋ-gjee (?) |
| ten | suɛN | ʃuan | suaik | *suan̄ (?) |
| above | a-tʃaN | a-tʃjaŋ | a-tʃuaŋ | *a-tʃuaŋ (?) |
| alive | a-seN | a-sən | a-sik | *a-sen̄ |
| ant | (dʒamdʒuʔ) | gamgɻuʔ | gɻɛŋgɻo | *gjamgjoʔ |
| awaken (intr.) | ʒao | ʒau | jaa | *jaa |
| bamboo (edible) | ma-bjao | mə-bɻau | mə-bɻaa | *ma-bjaa |
| before | bui | bui | bue | *bui |
| belly (exterior) | a-ɬyi-buN | hui-buŋ | a-ɬue-buk | *a-ɬui-buŋ̄ |
| belly (interior) | a-ɬyi | a-hui | a-ɬue | *a-ɬui |
| bird | pə-duu | pə-doo | pə-dou | *pə-dou (?) |
| bite | tɔɔ | tua | tua | *tua |
| bitter | a-tʃaʔ | a-tʃuaʔ | a-tʃjaa | *a-tʃuaʔ (?) |
| black | a-hjɛN | a-hjeĩ | a-hjɛ̃ | *a-hjaĩ |
| blow | fuu | fuu | (fuk) | *fuu |
| blue | a-pii | a-pii | a-pii | *a-pii |
| blood | a-hui | a-fui | a-hue | *a-hui (?) |
| bone | a-zɛN | a-zan | a-zaik | *a-zan̄ |
| bow | lɨɨ | lei | lei | *lei (?) |
| branch | a-kjɛɛ | hɻɨn-kɻei | hɻeŋ-kɻɛɛ | *kjai |
| breast (female) | a-njɛɛ | a-njei | a-njɛɛ | *a-njai |
| breathe | ʒuu | ʒuu | joo | *joo |
| bridge (not hanging) | ka-tyiN | ka-tun | ka-tuik | *ka-tun̄ |
| brother (younger) | a-nɔɔ | a-nua | anua | *a-nua |
| burn (transitive) | rii | rii | rii | *rii |
| can | muɛN | muan | muaiŋ | *muan |
| cane | rii | rei | rei | *rei |
| cave | wuʔ | uʔ | oo | *woʔ |
| chicken | [tʃaʔ] | [takjuu] | [səkuu] | |
| child | a-dəə | a-doo | a-dou | *a-dou (?) |
| cloth | ɛʔ | aiʔ | aik (Rawa at) | *at |
| crazy | a-bjao | a-bɻaa | bɻaa-bo | *abjaa |
| cry | (tʃɛʔ) | tʃap | tʃjap | *tʃjap (?) |
| cut (hit with dao) | pɛN | pan | paik | *pan̄ |
| cut (without leaving the blade) | iʔ | iʔ | ii | *iʔ |
| day | a-nii | a-nii | a-rii | *a-ńii |
| die | ii | ii | ii | *ii |
| dig | tʃuʔ | tʃuʔ | tʃoo | *tʃoʔ |
| do/make | [tsaʔ] | [ʒou] | [kaik] | |
| door | haN-wuiN | ha-wun | tʃuk-wuik | *HOUSE-wun̄ |
| down | buu | buu | buu | *buu |
| dream | baN | baŋ | bak | *baŋ̄ |
| drink | in | in | [riŋ] | *in |
| dry | a-wuɛN | a-wuan | a-wuaik | *awuan̄ |
| ear | a-kuiN | a-kun | a-kuik | *a-kun̄ |
| eat | tʃii | tʃii | tʃii | *tʃii |
| extinguish (intr.) | [gɛʔ] | biʔ | bik (Rawa bit) | *bit |
| existentialcopula | [wɛɛ] | [wai] | wɛɛ | |
| eye | a-kəm | a-kəm | a-kək | *a-kəm̄ |
| fall (from a height) | ɬuʔ | huʔ (ɬuʔ) | ɬjok-lo | *ɬuk (?) |
| fart | waiʔ | wai | wɛɛ | *waiʔ |
| far | a-tʃoi | a-tʃai | a-tʃjɛɛ | *a-tʃuai (?) |
| fat/grease | a-ʒɔɔ | a-zjaa | a-zua | *azua (?) |
| female/mother | a-mɔɔ | a-mua | a-mua | *a-mua |
| fingernail | (ageʔ gə-sɨn) | gei-sin | geisik | *ge-sin̄ |
| fire | bɛɛ | bai | bɛɛ | *bai |
| firewood | ʃiN | hɻɨn | hɻeŋ | *sjen (?) |
| fish | [tʃɨi] | [tʃui] | [kahuaŋ] | |
| flow | nyɛ | nuai | ruɛ | *ńuai |
| flower | a-buɛN | hɻɨn-buan | mə-buaik | *buan̄ |
| food | mə-luɛN | mə-luan | mə-luaik | *mə-luan̄ |
| frog | rəʔ | rəʔ | rəə | *rəʔ |
| fruit | ʃiN-wɛɛ | hɻɨn-wai | roŋ-wɛɛ | *wai |
| full | ljɛɛ | jei | ljɛɛ | *ljai |
| full/satiated | mɨŋ | moŋ | moŋ | *moŋ |
| garlic (Allium hookeri) | daN | daŋ | dak | *daŋ̄ |
| ghost | mə-ɬao | mə-hau (mə-ɬau) | mə-ɬaa | *mə-ɬaa |
| give | taN | taŋ | taŋ | *taŋ |
| green | a-rjɛɛ | a-rjei | a-rjɛɛ | *a-rjai |
| guts | a-ɬyi-rin | a-hui-rin | a-ɬue-riŋ | *a-ɬui-rin |
| hair (on body) | a-mɨn | a-mən | a-muiŋ | *a-mun |
| hair (on head) | kə-zaN | (kə-zjaŋ) | kə-zak | *kə-zaŋ̄ |
| hand/arm | a-geʔ | a-geiʔ | a-geik (Rawa gət) | *a-gət |
| head | a-kuN | a-kuŋ-bəə | a-kok-bəə | *akoŋ̄ |
| heart | a-luN-bəə | a-luŋ-bəə | a-lok-bəə | *a-loŋ̄-bəə |
| hold in mouth | mom | ? | mom | *mom |
| husband | a-wui | a-wui | a-wue | *a-wui |
| ill/sick | naN | naŋ | raŋ | *ńaŋ |
| itch | ɔɔ | a-wua | a-wua | *a-wua |
| kill | [wɛʔ] | aiʔ | aik (Rawa at) | *at |
| knife (machete) | tʃii | tʃee | tʃee | *tʃee (?) |
| know | dɛN | dan | daik | *dan̄ |
| leaf | a-ləp | (hɻɨn-jəp) | a-lək | *ljəp |
| leech | [pa-]wɛʔ | [pə-]waiʔ | ka-waik (Rawa pəwat) | *ka-wat |
| left side | pa-fii | pua-fii | pua-fee | *puafee (?) |
| leg | a-lɛɛ | a-lai | a-lɛɛ | *lai |
| lick | ljaʔ | jaa | vjaa | *? |
| light | a-tɔɔ | a-tua | a-tua | *a-tua |
| listen | nɨŋ | nuŋ | roŋ | *ńoŋ |
| liver | a-pjiN | a-pjin | a-pjik | *a-pjin̄ |
| long | a-pjaN | a-pɻaŋ | a-pɻaŋ | *a-pjaŋ |
| louse (head) | [ʃiʔ] | [hɻɛ̃] | [pɻɛɛ] | *? |
| male/father | a-pɔɔ | a-pua | a-pua | *apua |
| man | a-fuu | a-foo | a-fuu | *a-fuu (?) |
| marrow | (a-ɬyiN) | a-hin | a-ɬiŋ | *a-ɬin |
| meat | [ʃii] | [mai] | [mərjek] | *? |
| monkey (macaque) | [məraŋ] | [səduŋ] | [məzii] | |
| mortar | sətsəm | tʃuŋtʃəm | tʃjuŋtʃək | *tʃuŋ-tʃəm̄ |
| mouth | a-səm | a-səm | a-sək | *a-səm̄ |
| mushroom | mɨŋ | məŋ | məŋ | *məŋ |
| mute/stupid | bloʔ | bloʔ | blok | *blok |
| name | a-bjɛN | a-bɻɛn | a-bɻɛŋ | *a-bjɛn |
| near | a-nyi | a-nui | a-nui | *a-nui (?) |
| neck | kə-tuN-rin | tuŋ-rin | kə-tuŋ | *kə-tuŋ |
| negation | ba- | ba- | ba- | *ba- |
| new (of things) | a-fɛN | a-fan | a-faik | *a-fan̄ |
| night/dark | a-tʃeN | a-tʃen | a-tʃik | *a-tʃen̄ (?) |
| nose | a-puŋ | a-puŋ | a-pok | *a-poŋ̄ |
| old (of things) | a-tsɛN | a-tʃjen | a-tʃaik | *a-tʃjan̄ |
| path | lim | lim | lik (Saria dialect) | *lim̄ |
| penis | a-lɔʔ | a-luaʔ | a-lua | *a-luaʔ |
| person | [prin] | bii | bii | *bii |
| pig | [waʔ] | [dui] | [mədou] | *? |
| pillow | ka-kəm | koŋ-kəm | ko-kəm | *koŋ̄ -kəm (?) |
| Puroik | (prin-dəə) | purun | puruik | *purun̄ |
| pull | ryi | rui | rue | *rui |
| quiver | zəp | zəp | zək | *zəp |
| ripe | a-min | a-min | a-miŋ | *a-min |
| rot | ʃam | hɻam | hjap | *sjam̄ (?) |
| run | rin | ren | rik | *rin̄ |
| sago flour | bii | bee-mo | bee | *bee (?) |
| sago club (tool) | waN | waŋ | wak | *waŋ̄ |
| sago pick (front part) | kjuʔ | kɻuʔ | kɻok | *kjok |
| scratch | bjuʔ | bɻuʔ | bɻoo | *bjoʔ |
| sew | pin | pin | piŋ | *pin |
| shade | a-ɬim | a-him | a-ɬəp | *a-ɬim̄ (?) |
| shelf (over fireplace) | rap | rap | rak | *rap |
| shoulder | pa-tɨŋ | pua-tuŋ | pua-tok | *pua-toŋ̄ |
| shy | bii-wɛN | bii-wan | bii-waik | *biiwan̄ |
| sit | [rɨɨ] | [dʒao] | [tuŋ] | |
| skin | a-kuʔ | a-kɨʔ | a-kəə | *a-kuʔ (?) |
| sky | ha-mɨŋ | məŋ | kə-məŋ | *ha/kə-məŋ |
| sleep | rəm | rəm | rəm | *rəm |
| sleepy | rəm-bin | rəm-bin | rəm-biŋ | *rəm-bin |
| smell | nam | nam | naŋ | *nam |
| smoke | bɛ-kɨɨ | bai-kəə | bɛɛ-kɨɨ | *baikɨɨ (?) |
| son-in-law | a-bɔʔ | buaʔ | a-bua | *buaʔ |
| stand | tʃin | tʃin | tʃiŋ | *tʃin |
| star | [haNwaiʔ] | [hadaŋ] | [hagaik] | |
| stone | ka-lɨŋ | ka-huŋ (ka-ɬuŋ) | [kəbɻaa] | *ka-ɬuŋ (?) |
| sun | hamii | hamii | krii | *PFX-ńii |
| sweet | a-pin | a-pin | a-piŋ | *a-pin |
| swell | pən | pən | pəik | *pən̄ |
| taro | tʃjaʔ | tʃjaʔ | tʃua | *tʃuaʔ |
| tasty/savory | (a-jim) | a-rjem | a-rjep | *a-rjem̄ |
| that | tɛɛ | tai | tɛɛ | *tai |
| thick (book) | a-pən | a-pən | a-pik | *apən̄ (?) |
| thin (book) | a-tsap | (a-tʃjam) | a-tʃap | *a-tʃjam̄ |
| this | hɨŋ | həŋ | həŋ | *həŋ |
| tongue | a-lyi | jui | (a-rue) | *a-lui (?) |
| tooth | kə-tɔN | tuaŋ | kə-tuaŋ | *kə-tuaŋ |
| thorn | mə-zuN | mə-ʒuŋ | kə-zjoŋ | *mə/kə-zoŋ |
| up | kuN | kuŋ | kuŋ | *kuŋ |
| Urtica fibres | ʃaN | hɻaŋ | hɻak | *sjaŋ̄ |
| vomit | muɛʔ | muai | muɛ | *muaiʔ |
| war | mɔʔ | muaʔ | mua | *muaʔ |
| warm | a-ləm | a-ləm | a-ləp | *a-ləm̄ |
| water | kɔɔ | kua | kua | *kua |
| weave (on loom) | ɛʔ-rɔʔ | ai-ruaʔ | aikrua | *at-ruaʔ |
| wet | a-ʃam | a-hɻam | a-hjap | *a-hjam̄ (?) |
| what | hɛɛ | hai | [hii] | |
| white | a-rjuN | a-rjuŋ | a-rjuŋ | *a-rjuŋ |
| wife | a-ʒuu | a-zjoo | a-zou | *a-zjoo (?) |
| wing | a-ʒuiN | a-ʒun | a-juik | *a-jun̄ |
| woman | [məruu] | a-mui | a-mui | *a-mui |
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)Sino-Tibetan branches | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WesternHimalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand,Nepal,Sikkim) |
|  | |||
| EasternHimalayas (Tibet,Bhutan,Arunachal) | |||||
| Myanmar and Indo- Burmese border |
| ||||
| East andSoutheast Asia |
| ||||
| Dubious (possible isolates,Arunachal) |
| ||||
| Proposed groupings | |||||
| Proto-languages | |||||
Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches. | |||||