Puntland,[a] officially thePuntland State of Somalia,[b] is asemi-autonomous state that considers itself to be part ofSomalia,[4] despite not accepting the legitimacy of Somalia's current governing administration.[5][6][7] It was formed in 1998, and is afederal member state of Somalia. Puntland is located in northeast of Somalia. Its capital is the city ofGaroowe in theNugal region.[8] The region had a population of 4,334,633 in 2016.[3]
Puntland is bordered bySomaliland to its west, theGulf of Aden in the north, theGuardafui Channel in the northeast, theIndian Ocean,Galmudug State in the south, andEthiopia in the southwest. There are several major geographical apexes in Puntland, including theCape Guardafui, which forms the tip of the Horn of Africa,Ras Hafun the easternmost place on the entire African continent, and the beginning of theKarkaar mountain range.
The name "Puntland" is derived from theLand of Punt mentioned inancient Egyptian sources, although the exact location of the fabled territory is still a mystery. Many studies suggest that the Land of Punt was located in present-day Somalia,[9][10] whereas others propose that it was situated elsewhere.[11]
On 31 March 2024, following changes due to theconstitutional crisis in Somalia, thegovernment of Puntland stated that it no longer recognizes the authority of theSomali federal government and would no longer participate inSomali federal institutions. It has declared that it will "act independently", or "exercise powers of an independent state", until there is a federal government with a constitution agreed upon in a referendum in which Puntland participates.[5][6][7]
TheMajeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was founded in the mid-18th century. It rose to prominence the following century, under the reign of the resourceful Boqor (King)Osman Mahamuud.[12] Centred inAlula, it controlled much of northern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries.Boqor Osman was one of the prominent Darood clan chiefs who ruled the ancient towns of Alula,Bargaal,Bosaso andHafun and subsequently emerged as a powerful traditional elder who fully controlled areas under his rule.[13] The polity maintained a robust trading network, entered into treaties with foreign powers, and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.[14][15]
The Majeerteen Sultanate was nearly destroyed in the mid-1800s by a power struggle between Boqor Osman and his ambitious cousin,Yusuf Ali Kenadid. After almost five years of battle, the young upstart was finally forced into exile inYemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from theArabian Peninsula with a band ofHadhramimusketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to overpower the local clans and establish theSultanate of Hobyo in 1878.[12][16]
In late 1889, Boqor Osman entered into a treaty withItaly, making his realm an Italianprotectorate. His rival Sultan Kenadid had signed a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Sultanate the year before. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist objectives, with Boqor Osman looking to use Italy's support in his ongoing power struggle with Kenadid over the Majeerteen Sultanate. Boqor Osman and Sultan Kenadid also hoped to exploit the conflicting interests among the European imperial powers that were then looking to control the Somali peninsula, so as to avoid direct occupation of their territories by force.[17]
With the gradual extension into northern Somalia of European colonial rule, all three sultanates were annexed toItalian Somaliland in the early 20th century.[17]
Following the outbreak of theSomali Civil War in 1991, a home-grown constitutional conference was held inGaroowe in 1998 over a period of three months. Attended by the area's political elite, traditional elders (Issims), members of the business community, intellectuals and other civil society representatives, the autonomous Puntland State of Somalia was established to deliver services to the population, offer security, facilitate trade, and interact with domestic and international partners.[18]Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed served as the fledgling state's founding president.[19]
As stipulated in Article 1 of theTransitional Federal Charter of the Somali Republic, Puntland is a part of the Federal State of Somalia. As such, the region seeks the unity ofSomalis and adheres to a federal system of government.[20] Unlike the republic ofSomaliland to its west, Puntland is not trying to obtain international recognition as a separate nation.[21] However, both regions have one thing in common: they base their support upon clan elders and their organizational structure along lines based on clan relationships andkinship.[21][22] However, a key difference was that Puntland was formed as a descendant-based entity unlike in Somaliland.[23] The state was established as a "homeland" for theHarti community of Northern Somalia, whereby theMajeerten were deemed as the "chief architects" of the entity.[24][25] Since its establishment in 1998, Puntland has also been interritorial disputes with Somaliland over theSool,Sanaag and Ayn regions.
The legal structure of Puntland consists of the judiciary, legislative (House of Representatives) and the executive (the President and his nominated Council of Ministries) branches of government.[20] Though relatively peaceful, the region briefly experienced political unrest in 2001 when then President of Puntland, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, one of the founding fathers of the Puntland State and its first president, wanted his term extended. Ahmed andJama Ali Jama fought for control of the region, with Ahmed emerging victorious the following year. Ahmed served his second term as president until October 2004, when he was electedPresident of Somalia. He was succeeded in office byMohamed Hashi, who served until January 2005 when he lost a re-election bid in parliament to GeneralMohamud Muse Hersi "Adde".
In March 2005, President Muse began an ambitious plan to build an airport in Puntland's commercial capital of Bosaso, a project that is now complete and referred to asBender Qassim International Airport.[27][28]
In April 2007, Muse held meetings with SheikhSaud bin Saqr Al Qasimi, the crown prince and deputy ruler ofRas al-Khaimah in theUnited Arab Emirates (UAE), where the two leaders signed an agreement on a deal for setting up of a dedicated livestock quarantine facility to facilitate the import oflivestock from Somalia to the UAE.[29] In October 2008, Muse also signed aDh170 million agreement withDubai'sLootah Group to support the construction of an airport, seaport and free zone in the coastal city of Bosaso. Muse indicated that "I believe that when we finish all these projects our people will benefit by getting good health services, education and overall prosperity."[30]
In January 2009,Abdirahman Farole was elected the newpresident of Puntland. Upon assuming office, the Farole administration implemented a number of reforms, particularly in the security and judicial sectors. To bolster the region's justice system, numerous new prosecutors, judges and other court personnel as well as additional prison guards were hired and trained. In July 2010, the Puntland Council of Ministers unanimously approved a new anti-terrorism law to more efficiently handle terror suspects and their accomplices; a special court is also expected to be established within the region's existing criminal courts system to facilitate the task.[31]
Fiscally, a transparent,budget-basedpublic finance system was established, which has reportedly helped increase public confidence in government. In addition, a new regional constitution was drafted and later passed on 15 June 2009, which is believed to represent a significant step toward the eventual introduction of amulti-party political system to the region for the first time;[32] such a system already exists in the adjacent Somaliland region.[33]
More modest reforms were also put into motion in the social sector, particularly in the education and healthcare fields. The regional government has hired more healthcare workers and teachers, with major plans under way for school and hospital renovations.[32] One of the most significant new reforms enacted by the incumbent Puntland administration is the launching in May 2009 of thePuntland Agency For Social Welfare (PASWE), the first organization of its kind in Somali history. The agency provides medical, educational and counselling support to vulnerable groups and individuals such as orphans, the disabled and the blind. PASWE is overseen by a Board of Directors, which consists of religious scholars (ulema), business people, intellectuals and traditional elders.[34]
On 15 June 2009, the Puntland government passed a new regional draft constitution, representing a significant step toward the eventual introduction of amulti-party political system to the region for the first time.[32]
Women at a political function during the Puntland democratisation process
On 15 April 2012, the Puntland government opened a four-day constitutional convention officially inaugurating the newConstitution of Puntland. Overseen by the Puntland Electoral Commission (PEC), the constitution represented the final step in the extant regional democratization process and was scheduled to be followed by the formation of political parties.[35]
On 12 September 2012, thePuntland Electoral Commission announced that the registration process for political parties in Puntland was now open. This came after the passing of the Political Association Law, the Referendum Act, the District Elections Law and the inauguration of the state constitution.[36] They will also be challengers in the next elections, scheduled for January 2014.[37]
On 14 November 2012, President Farole announced the launching of his new political party,Horseed. The association counts over 200 members and represents the incumbent Puntland government, including Vice PresidentAbdisamad Ali Shire and the state Ministers. It is the first prospective party to register for an application with the Transitional Puntland Electoral Commission (TPEC). According to Farole, the general public will be eligible for membership in the organization once it is selected as an official political party.[38] Five other political associations were established the following month, including the Development and Justice PartyHorcad[39] launched by an entrepreneur and businessmanOmar Ismail Waberi along other politicians, the Union of the People of the Regions or UPR (Ururka Gobolada Umadaha Bahoobey or UGUB),[40] Midnimo, Talowadaag (Consensus-building), and GAHAYR or Golaha Aqoonta iyo Horumarinta ee Asaaska Yoolka Runta (Council of Education and Development towards Founding the True Goal).[41]
On 8 January 2014, former Prime Minister of SomaliaAbdiweli Mohamed Ali was elected as the 5th President of Puntland overcoming Dr. Farole by a single electoral vote.[42]Abdihakim Abdullahi Haji Omar was concurrently elected Puntland's vice president.[43]
On 8 January 2019 the former Federal Minister for Planning and International Cooperation, Said Abdullahi Deni, was declared the new president. The election was closely contested, going to a third round of voting. Deni defeated former intelligence officer,Asad Osman Abdullahi. Deni got 35 votes, to Diayno's 31 votes.
President of Puntland Said Abdullahi Deni
Deni addressed the lawmakers after being declared the winner. He said he would continue the policies of his predecessor, Abdiweli Gaas.[44] In April 2024, Puntland announced it would operate as an independent state amid a dispute over Somali constitutional changes.[45]
Administrative divisions
Regions
As stipulated in Article 3 of theTransitional Constitution of the Puntland Regional Government of 2001, Puntland consists of the following claimed regions:[20][46]
In January 2009, the short-livedquasi-state ofMaakhir was officially incorporated into Puntland.[47]
Control of the westernSool,Sanaag andAyn (SSC) provinces is disputed with Somaliland. On 17 July 2025, the Puntland government reaffirmed that these regions remained under its governance, refusing to recognize theKhatumo administration until a consultative agreement can be reached.[48][49][50]
On 8 April 2013, the Puntland government announced the creation of a new region namedGardafuul. Carved out of the Bari region, it consists of three districts and has its capital atAluula.[51] Prior to naming this new region, the previous government of Puntland created three regions, all carved out of the existing regions:Karkaar was carved out ofBari,Haylaan out ofSanaag, and Ayn out ofTogdheer region.[52]
In the south, according to the federal government of Somalia andCIA, the southern part of Mudug is part ofGalmudug.[citation needed]
Acamel peering over the leafier portions of Puntland'sCal Madow mountain range
Puntland is geographically situated in the northeastern portion ofSomalia. It is bordered bySomaliland to its west, theGulf of Aden in the north, theIndian Ocean in the southeast, andEthiopia in the southwest. Puntland occupies a total land area of 212,510 km2 (82,050 sq mi)[54] or roughly one-third of Somalia's geographical area.[55] Mountains includeGolis Mountains,Galgala, andAl Madow.[56][57][58]
Climate
The region issemi-arid, with a warm climate and average daily temperatures ranging from 27 °C (80.6 °F) to 37 °C (98.6 °F). These climatic conditions favorpastoralism as the most effective use of land in most parts of the region. Grazing lands include theHawd region in the high plateau to the west of theMudug andSool regions, into the lush green land ofSanaag and into Ethiopia and the lowNugaal valley. Mild temperatures, by contrast, are experienced only along the high mountain ranges ofBari.
Rainfall is sparse and variable, with no single area receiving more than 400 mm (15.7 in) of rain annually. Nomads primarily rely onwells as a source of water rather thansurface water. There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. Puntland's seasons are:[20]
Jilal – from January to March; the harshest dry season of the year
Gu – from April to June; the main rainy season
Xagaa – from July to September; the second dry season
Deyr – from October to December; the shorter and less reliable rainy season
Following the outbreak of the civil war in Somalia, numerous problems arose with regard to access to education in rural areas and along gender lines, quality of educational provisions, responsiveness of school curricula, educational standards and controls, management and planning capacity, and financing. To address these concerns, the Puntland government is in the process of developing an educational policy to guide the region's scholastic process as it embarks on the path of reconstruction and economic development. The latter includes a gender sensitive national education policy compliant with world standards, such as those outlined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).[59] Examples of this and other educational measures at work are the government's enactment of legislation aimed at securing the educational interests of girls,[60] promoting the growth of anEarly Childhood Development (ECD) program designed to reach parents and care-givers in their homes as well as in the ECD centers for 0- to 5-year-old children,[61] and introducing incentive packages to encourage teachers to work in remote rural areas.[62] Puntland's education system is considered the most progressive, and is attempting to close the gender gap so that more females will be able to attend school. Other regions are following Puntland's lead in that regard.[63]
Within the Puntland government, theMinistry of Education is responsible for developing and managing the region's educational needs.[64] It is headed by the Minister Mohamud Bile Dubbe, under whom a Vice Minister and Director General help oversee a Post-Primary Education Division (PPED) and a Basic Education Directorate (BED), among other boards.[65]
From 2005/2006 to 2006/2007, there was a significant increase in the number of schools in Puntland, up 137 institutions from just one year prior. During the same period, the number of classes in the region increased by 504, with 762 more teachers also offering their services. Total student enrollment increased by 27% over the previous year, with girls lagging only slightly behind boys in attendance in most regions. The highest class enrollment was observed in the northernmostBari region, and the lowest was observed in the under-populated Ayn region. The distribution of classrooms was almost evenly split between urban and rural areas, with marginally more pupils attending and instructors teaching classes in urban areas.[70]
Following the COVID-19 crisis, the Government of Puntland launched the Learning Passport, a digital remote learning platform where children can access educational content both online and offline from their homes. The Learning Passport is a ground-breaking partnership between UNICEF, Microsoft and the University of Cambridge.[71][72]
As of 2016, the population of Puntland is estimated at 4,334,633 residents, 39% of whom arenomads.[3] The region is primarily inhabited by people from theSomali ethnic group, with theDarod especially well-represented.[73] There are also a number ofMehri residents.[74]
As with the rest of Somalia,Islam is the main religion of the Puntland region.[20]
Transport
Municipal bus services operate inBosaso,Garowe,Las Anod,Galkayo andQardho. Shuttle services between the region's major towns and adjacent hamlets are also available via different types of vehicles, such as 4 wheel drives and light goods vehicles (LGV). As of May 2015, over 70,000 vehicles are registered with the Puntland Ministry of Works and Transport.[75]
Roadside view of a neighbourhood in Garowe
Puntland is traversed by a 750 km (470 mi) north–south highway. It connects major cities in the northern part of Somalia, such as Garowe, Bosaso and Galkayo, with towns in the south.[76] In 2012, the Puntland Highway Authority completed rehabilitation work on the central artery linking Garowe with Galkayo.[77] The transportation body also started an upgrade and repair project in June 2012 on the large thoroughfare between the regional capital and Bosaso.[78] Additionally, renovations began in October 2012 on the freeway linking Bosaso with Qardho.[77] Plans are also in the works to construct new roads connecting littoral towns in the region to the main highway.[78]
Bosaso has a majorseaport, which was constructed during the mid-1980s for annual livestock shipments to theMiddle East. In January 2012, a renovation project was launched, with KMC contracted to upgrade the harbor. The initiative's first phase saw the clean-up of unwanted materials from the dockyard and was completed within the month. The second phase involves the reconstruction of the port's adjoining seabed, with the objective of accommodating larger ships.[79] In 2012, a team of engineers was also enlisted by the Puntland authorities to assess the ongoing renovations taking place at theLas Khorey port.[80] According to theMinister of Ports,Said Mohamed Rage, the Puntland government intends to launch more such development projects in Las Khorey.[81]
Local airlines offer flights to various domestic and international locations, such asDjibouti,Addis Ababa,Dubai andJeddah; they also provide flights for theHajj andUmrah pilgrimages. The most prominent airlines in Puntland areJubba Airways, Osob Air andDaallo Airlines, which operate fromBender Qassim International Airport in Bosaso andAbdullahi Yusuf International Airport (formerly Galkayo Airport) in Galkayo, among other places. In late September 2013, a launching ceremony of a tender process for the Bosaso airport's renovations was held at the facility. The renovations will include the extension of the airport's gravel runway from 1,800 m to 2,650 m. The runway's width will also be widened from 30 m to 45 m, and feature 7.5 m gravel shoulders on both sides. According to Puntland Deputy Minister of Civil Aviation Abdiqani Gelle, the Puntland government plans to carry out similar upgrades at theGarowe International Airport in Garowe, the Abdullahi Yusuf International Airport in Galkayo, and theQardho Airport in Qardho.[82]
The Puntland Security Force (PSF) is thearmed force of the autonomous Puntland region. Commanders and senior officials of the military are appointed by a qualified panel approved by the Council of Ministers.[83] The Puntland security apparatus also has an independent military judiciary.[83]
The PSF includes thePuntland Dervish Force (PDF), its official paramilitary division.[84] It operates its own police force, which includes a Special Protection Unit.[84]
ThePuntland Maritime Police Force (PMPF) is a locally recruited, professional maritime security force. It is primarily aimed at preventing, detecting and eradicatingpiracy,illegal fishing, and other illicit activity off of the coast of Somalia, and at generally safeguarding the nation's marine resources.[86][87] In addition, the Force provides civic support, including repairing wells, rehabilitating hospitals and clinics, and refurbishing roads, airports and other infrastructure. It also offers skills training programs to local communities.[87][88]
Puntland has 1,600 km (990 mi) of coastline, which is abundant with fish and other naturalmarine resources. Additional economic products and activities of the region includelivestock,frankincense,myrrh,gum arabic,manufacturing andagriculture.[89] Agricultural products such as mangoes, bananas, guavas, lemons, sugarcanes, and peanuts are grown on plantations around the state.[90]
Food items and consumer goods imported viaBerbera,Somaliland sell more cheaply compared to those imported viaBosaso.[91] Therefore, in exchange live animals originating from Puntland are exported viaBerbera.[91] The key trading centres in Puntland are centred in Bosaso andGalkayo.[91] However, other towns such asQardho andGarowe act as second-grade market places.[91]
Income is generated through the following industries: livestock, fishery, frankincense, and petty trading.[92] Animals originating from Puntland are exported via Bosaso.[93][94][95] The key trading centres in Puntland are centred in Bosaso andGalkayo.[91] Milk collectors ( aanoley in Somali ) are based in markets in the cities ofQardho,Garowe andBoosaso.[96]
Puntland has the lowest rate of poverty inSomalia, with 27%, compared to 50% inSomaliland and 57% inMogadishu. Experts believe this is because of higher consumption and higher labour force participation. Households in Puntland consume a higher quantity per capita per item and more items per household. The lower rate of poverty does not appear to be driven by household size, as the average in Puntland is 5.2, compared to 5.7 inSomaliland and 4.5 inMogadishu. Puntland is doing better in various important indicators of well-being. For instance, the literacy rate in Puntland is 64% compared to the national average of 55%. Additionally, households in Puntland also outperform the average in other educational outcomes such as enrolment and educational attainment. 70% of households in Puntland have access to improved water sources compared to the national average of 58%. Therefore, Puntland's higher performance on non-monetary indicators of well-being are inline with its lower rate of poverty.[97]
The total monetary value of the poverty gap includes the entire Somali population.[97]
In December 2011, a new commercial market opened in Bosaso's northern Dayaha ("Star") neighborhood, near the seaport. Approximately half a kilometer in size, it was designed to ensure easy vehicle access. The market is the result of careful planning between Puntland government officials and civil society representatives.[98]
Bosaso is also home toGolis Telecom Somalia, the largesttelecommunications operator in northeastern Somalia. Founded in 2002 with the objective of supplying the country with GSM mobile services,fixed line andinternet services, it has an extensive network that covers all of the nation's major cities and more than 40 districts in both Puntland and Somaliland.[99] Additionally,Netco has its headquarters in the city. Other telecommunication firms serving the region includeTelcom andNationLink.
In April 2013, the Puntland Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources officially inaugurated a new fish market in Garowe. Constructed in conjunction with the UK authorities and the UNDP, it is part of a larger regional development plan that will see two other similar marketplaces launched within the year in Galkayo and Qardho.[100]
In August 2014, in conjunction with the government of Djibouti and an international construction firm headquartered in China, the Puntland Transport and Seaports Ministry launched a project to establish new seaports in the regional state. The initiative is part of a broader campaign by the Puntland administration to focus on tapping into the region's commercial potential through various development projects.[101]
In the 2000s, the Puntland government began official negotiations with foreign oil companies over exploration rights in the area. The provincial authorities in October 2005 grantedRange Resources a majority stake in two sizable land-based mineral and hydrocarbon exploration licenses, in addition to offshore rights. The onshoreNugaal andDharoor Valley blocks in question span over 14,424 and 24,908 km2 (5,569 and 9,617 sq mi), respectively. Two years later, Range Resources obtained a 100% interest in the two blocks and concurrently farmed out 80% of that share to Canmex Minerals.[102]
In January 2007, the Puntland administration, which was then led by President Mohamud Muse Hersi, signed the Puntland Product Sharing Agreement (PSA) with Range Resources Limited and the Canmex Minerals subsidiary Canmex Holdings (Bermuda) II Limited.[103]
Following a change in leadership in 2009, the Puntland government, now led by President Abdirahman Mohamud Farole, sought to renegotiate the profit sharing agreement with Range Resources to ensure more favorable terms for the region.[104] In 2012, the Puntland government gave the green light to the first official oil exploration project in Puntland and Somalia at large.[105][106]
In 2017, Puntland ministers held a cabinet meeting where they approved an oil exploration deal with Chinese companyCCECC, in return for constructing a road connectingEyl andGarowe as well as renovations and refurbishments to theAbdullahi Yusuf Airport.[107][108]
Media
Some satellite services in Puntland
Puntland has its own television channel and studios.Puntland TV and Radio is the public broadcasting network of the autonomous Puntland state of Somalia. Its headquarters are at the regional capital ofGarowe. The service also maintains an office inLondon. Founded in April 2013, Puntland TV and Radio broadcasts locally inSomali via terrestrial service. It also airs programs globally throughsatellite. Radio Puntland broadcasts internationally via shortwave, with its transmission reaching as far as Finland. Its standard programming includes general news, focusing on regional developments, sports and entertainment.[109][110]
Established in 2004,Radio Garowe is a community radio station based in Garowe. The station broadcasts daily from Somalia at 89.8 FM,[112] covering all the latest headlines in Somali news, politics, and society. It also broadcasts other special programming onGarowe Online, its online sister website.
LaasqorayNET is another privately owned website based inBadhan,Bosaso,Dubai andLondon. The website features articles written inSomali and English. In addition, the website hosts some audio, though the latter is not regularly updated.
Radio Gaalkacyo is the state radio station. Based inGalkayo, it was formerly known as Radio Free Somalia.
Horseed Media was established in 2002 by a group of Somali intellectuals in the Netherlands and Finland. The station broadcasts from Bosaso and has a listening audience of about 80,000 people, with a reach of 150 km2 (58 sq mi). It also operates a website that counts over 10,000 daily visitors.
Based in Garowe,Puntland Post was established in 2001 by Somali expatriates in Denmark. Its website publishes daily domestic and international news reports and analysis in both Somali and English, with an emphasis on Puntland affairs.[113]
Established in 2014,Puntland Star presents breaking news, stories and documentaries from Somalia and the rest of the world.
Other media organizations includeRaxanreeb Online (RBC Radio). Launched in 2006, RBC presents Somali news to a global audience in both Somali and English. With direct sources based in Somalia, it covers local politics and society.[114]
^Horn of Africa, Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p. 130.
^Transformation towards a regulated economy, (WSP Transition Programme, Somali Programme: 2000) p. 62.
^Lee V. Cassanelli,The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600–1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p. 75ISBN0812278321.
^ab"Range Resources: Speculative Buy at 25.5p – Target price 56p"(PDF). Range Resources. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 20 November 2012. Retrieved19 April 2019.The Puntland State of Somalia has considered itself autonomous since 1998, with its own capital city of Garoowe and has designated regions with recognized regional capitals. The Putland authorities, headed by President Adde Muse Hersi, maintain a low profile and do not seek independence from the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia (Mogadishu being the capital). The autonomous State of Puntaland emerged after the fall of President Siyad Barre in 1991. In the south of Somalia, Islamic courts, warlords and regional tribes jostle for power and control whilst the State of Puntland experiences relative political stability with one dominant clan currently and historically controlling the region.The stability of Puntland is largely a product of its clan system that creates an established order based on family loyalty and cultural bonds and creates a more proactive and solution oriented politi-cal system.
^abcPape, Utz; di Filippo, Mario; Nunez, Gonzalo; Wollburg, Philip (June 2017)."Somali Poverty Profile 2016"(PDF).The World Bank (PDF). pp. 91–102.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 October 2017.
^Planning and Statistics Department, Puntland Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (2006).The Statistical Abstract of Bosaso Municipality. Bosaso Municipal Council. p. 58.
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