| Regions with significant populations | |
|---|---|
 Pakistan | 112,807,000(seebelow) |
 India | 535,489[1] |
 United Kingdom | 500,000[2] |
 United States | 263,699[3] |
| Religions | |
 Islam(Sunni majority,Shia &Ahmadiyya minority) | |
| Languages | |
| Punjabi (Shahmukhi script),Urdu | |
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Punjabi Muslims (Punjabi:پن٘جابی مُسلمان) arePunjabis who are adherents ofIslam.[4][5] With a population of more than 112 million, they are the third-largest predominantly Islam-adheringMuslim ethnicity in the world,[6] afterArabs[7] andBengalis.[8]
The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents ofSunni Islam, while a minority adhere toShia Islam. Most of them are primarily geographically native to thePakistani province ofPunjab, but a large group of them have ancestry across thePunjab region as a whole.[4] Punjabi Muslims speak oridentify with thePunjabi language (under aPerso-Arabic script known asShahmukhi) as theirmother tongue.
The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab region into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 16th century CE.[9][10][11][12] However, Punjab as a linguistic, geographical and cultural entity had existed for centuries prior.[13] Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections.[14] Islam spread in the region via missionarySufi saints whosedargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region, thereby becoming the faith of many by the 16th century. This contributed to the formation of a Punjabi Muslim identity.[15][9][16][17]
At the advent ofIslam in the seventh century, Punjab was part ofTakka kingdom. By then,Buddhism had declined in Punjab after the fall of theKushans, and had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[18] Several scholars have identified Takka kingdom with the kingdom ofal-Usaifan, whose king is reported byal-Biladhuri to have converted to Islam during the reign of Caliphal-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842).[19] However, Islam as a political power got introduced via southern Punjab only after the 8th centuryUmayyad conquest of Sindh. The first Muslim state in Punjab was theEmirate of Multan, established in 855 after the disintegration of theAbbasid Caliphate. In the 11th century, Muslim conquered northern Punjab after the defeat of the nativeHindu Shahis by theGhaznavids. The city ofLahore emerged as a thriving city, rivallingGhazni and effectively acted as a second capital of the empire.[20][21]
In Punjab, conversion to Islam occurred mostly amongst pastoralist or agricultural groups that were not integrated into the HinduVarna social class hierarchy,[15] such asJats, who were known to Muslims asZutt.[22] The tribes of theBar region would be contacted by Sufi mystics likeFariduddin Ganjshakar over the centuries and converted to Islam, albeit a syncretic form. TheGakhars of thePothohar Plateau were noted for their martial capabilities and gradually converted to Islam.[15]
In 1161, theGhurids conquered the city of Ghazni, forcing the Ghaznavids to shift their capital to Lahore. Soon, however,Muhammad Ghori invaded Punjab as well, and conquered Lahore and Multan in 1186, marking end of the Ghaznavids. In 1206, he was assassinated at Damiak byIsma'ilis or PunjabiKhokhars.[23] One of his Mamluk slaves,Qutb ud-Din Aibak, established theDelhi Sultanate, with Lahore being the first capital of the sultanate. The early period of the Delhi Sultanate saw severalMongol invasions of Punjab. Ultimately, Mongols were defeated during the rule of theKhalji dynasty.[24]
Islam became firmly established in Punjab during the era of Delhi Sultanate, and tribes like Khokhars played an important role in the inter-dynastic struggle. In 1320,Ghazi Malik, the former governor of Multan, rebelled against the Khalji rule. With the support of various factions including Khokhars, he established theTughlaq dynasty.[25][26] Some of the earliest mentions of Punjabi language date to this period.[27]
By the late 14th century, the Tughlaq dynasty had declined, and the sultanate was divided among various warlords. The city of Lahore was intermittently captured by Khokhars. Taking advantage of the prevailing anarchy,Timur led a brutal invasion of Delhi sultanate in 1398. Lahore had been under control ofShaikha Khokhar since 1394, who resisted Timur but was defeated and killed. Afterwards, Timur plundered Delhi and massacred its inhabitants.[28] Tughlaq power crumbled and resulted in nobles asserting formal independence. In 1414 the Tughlaq dynasty was itself replaced bySayyid dynasty ofKhizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain.[29] Much of the time of Sayyid Sultans was spent in fighting againstJasrat, who was the most formidable opponent of Delhi sultans in Punjab. South Punjab became independent from Delhi whenLangah Sultanate broke away in 1445.[30] The rulers of medievalGujarat Sultanate in western India are also described as having PunjabiKhatri origins.[31]
By the early 16th century, theLodi dynasty which succeeded Sayyids had control over little more than the region around Lahore in Punjab. In 1525, theMughal emperorBabur invaded Delhi Sultanate and conquered it by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in thefirst battle of Panipat. The Gakhars of Potohar remained loyal to the house of Babur afterSher Shah Suri overthrew the Mughals underHumayun. This caused Sher Shah Suri to invade Pothohar and the local chiefSarang Khan died fighting against him.[32] However, Gakhars continued their resistance, even after Sher Shah Suri's ministerTodar Mal constructed theRohtas fort in the region.[33] Gakhar chiefs such asKamal Khan were part of Mughal nobility when Humayun regained Delhi after defeating Sur dynasty in theSecond Battle of Panipat.[34]
According to theAin-i-Akbari written during the reign ofAkbar, Punjab region was divided intoSubah of Lahore andMultan.[35] Muslims had majority in southern Punjab by the 16th century,[9] and a definitive Punjabi identity had formed as the inhabitants of Punjab started to be addressed as Punjabis by the outsiders during 17th century.[36] Several Punjabi Muslims rose to high ranks during Mughal period, such asGrand Vizier (Prime Minister)Saadullah Khan (1645–1656). He belonged to theThaheem clan ofChiniot.[37] Saadullah Khan oversaw construction of several Mughal monuments includingTaj Mahal under the supervision of architectUstad Ahmad Lahori, who was also from Punjab, and led the Mughal army to Balkh in 1646 duringShah Jahan's war against theSafavids in the region.[38]Wazir Khan of Chiniot was also a grand vizier in the early Shah Jahani era.[39]
The death ofAurangzeb in 1707, began the decline of Mughal power in the 18th century. Between 1712 and 1719,Barhas, a dynasty of kingmakers of peasant origins from Punjab, exercised de facto control over the Mughal Empire.[40] Mughal authority in Punjab remained in the hands ofNawabs who gave nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor in Delhi; however it collapsed in Punjab afterMir Mannu died in 1753. Last Nawab of Punjab,Adina Beg was a PunjabiArain who attempted to make Punjab independent. After his untimely death in 1758,Ahmad Shah Durrani directly annexed the region. Punjab suffered from the eight invasions of the Durrani Afghans between 1748 and 1767, which ravaged the region.[41]
During these centuries of Mughal rule, Punjabi Muslims established great institutions ofIslamic civilization in cities and towns such as Lahore and Sialkot. Punjabi Muslim scholars were "in high demand", teaching theIslamic sciences as far asCentral Asia, in cities such asBukhara, even being considered there asAwliya' within their lifetimes.[42] TheKamboh clan of Lahore also produced many notable scholars and administrators. Other influential Muslim scholars born in Punjab during Mughal era includeAbdul Hakim Sialkoti andAhmad Sirhindi.[43] Between 1761 and 1799, the south Indiankingdom of Mysore was ruled byHyder Ali, stated to be a Punjabi adventurer in the army of Mysore, and his sonTipu Sultan.[44][45] Tipu Sultan, who is widely hailed as a freedom fighter in South Asia, led Mysore duringAnglo-Mysore Wars and also pioneered modernrocketry.[46]
Ahmad Shah Durrani and his successors failed to maintain control of Punjab except in Attock, Kasur and Multan where large Afghan colonies were based. Punjab was divided into petty Muslim and Sikh chieftancies. The situation remained as such tillRanjit Singh took Lahore in 1799.[47]
The two important Punjabi Muslim states that existed in 18th century Punjab were those of theSials and the Gakhars. Gakhars under Sultan Muqarrab Khan (r.1738–1769) established rule over Potohar and theChaj Doab whilst the Sials with their capital at Jhang conquered the LowerRachna andSindh Sagar Doabs under their chief Inayatullah Khan (r.1747–1787).[48] However,Sikhs, who originated in central Punjab, gradually expanded westwards. Owing to their superior European-style military training and discipline, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh not only gained control of most of Punjab but also conqueredKashmir (1818), Multan (1818) andPeshawar (1833) from Durrani Afghans. Only theBahawalpur state, then underDaudpotra Nawabs, remained independent from Sikh regime. With Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, Sikh power declined. After suffering defeat in theAnglo-Sikh wars, their territory was annexed in 1849 by the British East India Company.[49][page needed]
Views of the Sikh Empire rule, are mixed amongst different Punjabi Muslim groups. Ranjit Singh is seen favourably by a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan but remains overall largely negative.[50] The mid 19th-century Punjabi Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's empire and governance.[51][52] According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals.[51] His account portrays Ranjit Singh as leading his Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury".[53] As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the conversion of the Bad shahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[54][55]
Historian Robina Yasmin, on the other hand, argues against the stereotypical narratives of claimed anti-Muslim oppression by the Sikh Empire.[56] After researching contemporary sources held in the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, she concluded that the Sikh rulers were secular and allowed their Muslim subjects to freely practice their religion.[56] She also points out the fact that during the reign of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, there was never a single case of rebellion against the Sikh authorities by Muslims.[56] She further claims any beliefs of maltreatment of Muslims is based upon misunderstandings of the condition of the Muslim community during the Sikh Empire.[56]
During the colonial era, the practice ofreligious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims andPunjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:
"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions ofTazias, inMuharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment ofSabils (shelters where water andsharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like theChiraghan fair ofShalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."[57]: 174
— Excerpt from theCensus of India (Punjab Province), 1911
The news of theRebellion of 1857 reached Punjab quite late.Jhelum inPunjab saw a rebellion in which 35 British soldiers were killed on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son ofColonel William Spring.[58] On 9 July, most of the brigade of sepoys atSialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi.[59] They were intercepted byJohn Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross theRavi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island, they were defeated by Nicholson in theBattle of Trimmu Ghat.[49]: 290–293 However, the main opponent of British rule in Punjab wasRai Ahmad Khan fromKharral clan who waged war against it for three months in central Punjab. He was killed on 21 September 1857 in a skirmish with British colonial forces while inflicting heavy losses to the British.[60]
Before British annexation of Punjab, the consciousness of a Punjabi identity was at its zenith.[36] Writing in 1840s, the Punjabi Muslim poetShah Mohammad viewed Anglo-Sikh wars as war between the Punjab and Hind (India).[36]
However, during the colonial period, communal identity began to slowly supersede a more regional one, and Punjabi Muslims increasingly disowned Punjabi language in the favour ofUrdu in Persian script as an indication of risingIslamic nationalism.[36] As a sign of a growing sense of Muslim self-identity, it has been estimated that out of the 70,000 to 80,000 books and pamphlets printed in Punjab from 1867 to 1914 some 25,000 to 30,000 "were written by a Muslim or published to meet the needs of the [Muslim] community."[61]
HistorianFarina Mir estimates that out of the 413 periodicals and newspapers published in Punjab between 1880 and 1905, 343 or 82% were in Urdu. She also shows that books were mostly published in Urdu, with a lowest of 35% of all the books from Punjab being in Urdu in 1870-1871 (followed by Hindi with 18%) and a highest of 51% in 1885-1886 (followed by Hindi with 15%). Of all the years surveyed (from 1870-1871 to 1902-1903), in 1875-1876 Arabic was the second most popular language (9%) while Punjabi was the second most popular language during the following years: 1879-1880 (18%), 1889-1890 and 1895-1896 (both 23%) and 1902-1903 (28%).[62]
Punjabi Muslims, classified as a "martial race" by the British colonialists,[63] made a substantial part of theBritish Indian Army.[64] British academic David Omissi called them the single largest group in both World Wars,[65] at the eve ofWorld War II accounting for around 29% of its total numbers.[66] Due to these reasons, another British academic, Kate Imy, writes that "Punjabi Muslims were the true backbone of the Indian Army."[67] Most were recruited from thePothohar Plateau.[68]
However, there was also a history of popular resistance from Punjabi Muslims against British colonialism, including during the1857 Indian Rebellion with the likes ofRai Ahmad Khan Kharal, facts which historian Turab-ul-Hassan Sargana says have been undermined because the elites of Punjab who collaborated with the British are those who still rule Pakistan today.[69]
Due to their heavy involvement with the British Indian Army, the Punjabi Muslims would know a form of social mobility and economic empowerement that would differentiate them from non-Punjabi Muslims of the region, Indian defence analystColonel RSN Singh writing that "the economic and social hiatus between Punjabi Muslims and the Muslims of the Indian heartland widened to the extent that the latter had ceased to be a force of any consequence."[70]
TheGovernment of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. TheUnionist Party under a Punjabi Muslim, SirSikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded byMalik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[71]
During the 1930s and the 1940s, theMajlis-e Ahrar-e Islam, an anti-colonialIslamist political party founded in 1929 as an offshoot of theKhilafat Movement and a close collaborator of theIndian National Congress, became the dominant political force among Punjabi Muslims, especially among the lower middle echelons and the artisan classes, the Ahrar's having a diversity of Islamic schools but generally subscribed to aDeobandi interpretation with anIslamic socialist approach as well.[72]
During thePartition of 1947, millions also migrated from East Punjab to West Punjab to escape violence fromHindu andSikh militias.[73] After independence, Bengalis formed the majority ethnicity ofPakistan, followed by Punjabis. After 1971, Punjabis became the majority ethnicity.
A 2009Pew Research Center report found that 96% of Punjabis in Pakistan identified primarily as Pakistani when choosing between national and ethnic identities, the highest proportion among all surveyed groups, surpassing bothPashtuns andMuhajirs, who each stood at 92%.[74]
Sufism has also played a major role in the history ofPunjab.[75] Many prominentSufi saints were born in Punjab, includingFariduddin Ganjshakar,Waris Shah andBulleh Shah.[76][77]
Punjabi Muslims had a major contribution in the development ofPunjabi language.Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179–1266) is recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language.[78] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent beingBulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed underShah Hussain (1538–1599),Sultan Bahu (1630–1691),Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785),Waris Shah (1722–1798),Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826),Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) andKhwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901).
The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature ofqisse, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa ofHeer Ranjha byWaris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories includeSohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah,Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707),Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), andQissa Puran Bhagat byQadaryar (1802–1892). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred theghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in theKafi.[79]
Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions.Sufi music andQawali, commonly practiced inPunjab, Pakistan; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[80][81]
Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using traditional musical instruments likeTumba,Algoza,Dhadd,Sarangi,Chimta and more. There is a wide range offolk songs for every occasion from birth to death including marriage, festivals, fairs and religious ceremonies.
Punjabi Muslims are found almost exclusively in Pakistan with 98% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[82] Thus religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominantSunni population withShia,Ahmadiyya andChristian minorities.[83]
While the total population ofPunjab is 127 million as noted in the2023 Pakistan census,[84][85]ethnic Punjabis comprise approximately 44.7% of the national population, estimated at 252,364,571 as of 2024.[86][87] Ethnic Punjabis, that is, discounting the localKashmiris,Pashtuns andBaloch residents, thus number approximately 112,807,000 million in Pakistan; this makes Punjabis thelargest ethnic group in Pakistan by population.[86][87]
Punjabi Muslim society is centered around the concept ofbiraderi (برادری), social brotherhood within the tribe and clan.
The major tribes and clans among Punjabi Muslims are theJats,Rajputs,Arains,Ansari,Sheikh,Gujjars andAwans.[88]
In his 1911-bookThe Armies of India, British major Sir George Fletcher MacMunn would write that Muslims of Punjab "are of many mixed races, but who largely consist ofRajput tribes converted to Islam at various times in the past."[89]
First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
'Amir Khusro ba Zuban-e-Punjabi ba ibarat-e-marghub muqaddama jang ghazi ul mulk Tughlaq Shah o Nasir uddin Khusro Khan gufta ke aan ra ba Zuban-e-Hindvar guvaend' (Amir Khusro in the language of the Punjab wrote an introduction of the battle between Tughlaq [1324-1320] and Khusro which in the language of India is called avar)
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The latter sultanate was founded by a former Tughluq governor, perhaps from a family of Punjabi Khatri converts, who took the title Muzaffar Shah in the early fifteenth century but reigned for only a short time.
As another example of such soldiers of marginal peasant origin, the Barha Sayyids, a celebrated troop of soldiers under the Mughals deserve attention. They were said to be the descendants of the families who had, at an uncertain date, moved from their homes in Panjab to a sandy and infertile tract of what is now the eastern part of the Muzaffarnagar district
A shared Persian language, and its corresponding religio-cultural modalities and symbols, ensured that the credentials of deputies from Hindustan and Khurasan would be recognized across Transoxiana. Fazl Ahmad appointed several Punjabi and Peshawari deputies at Balkh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Aqcha, Khiva, and Khoqand. Some of the Punjabi migrants were even acknowledged as native saints of Transoxiana within their lifetimes.
Hyder Ali was originally a Punjabi adventurer in the army of the Hindu king of Mysore.
The second power was a new force, which in the 1770s was just emerging and beginning to flex its military muscles: the Mysore Sultanate of Haidar Ali and his formidable warrior son, Tipu Sultan. Haidar, who was of Punjabi origin, had risen in the ranks of the Mysore army, where he introduced many of the innovations he had learned from observing French troops at work in the Carnatic Wars.
For a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan and most Sikhs, Ranjit Singh is a local hero — 'son of the soil' — who successfully thwarted aggressors from the north and established a strong centralised government that provided relief to the people of Punjab after decades of chaos and violence.
In addition to the masjid's use as a site for military storage, stables for the cavalry horses, and barracks for soldiers, parts of it were also used as storage for powder magazines.
This study was undertaken with a new paradigm to understand the condition of the Muslims under Sikh rule in the Punjab. It challenges the stereotypical approaches, which highlight contradictions between Muslims and Sikhs. Some historians have pointed out that the Sikh rulers mistreated the Muslims, harmed their religion and damaged their religious places. In support of this, they claim that not only did the Muslims of India show resentment, but also that some of them started Tehrik-e-Mujahidin against Ranjit Singh's state. The author, with new evidence from the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, has developed the hypothesis that the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh and his successors adopted a secular approach towards minorities, including the Muslims - that is, there was not a single movement within the Punjab started by Muslims against the Sikh rulers. Instead, the Tehrik-e-Mujahidin that was launched against the alleged maltreatment of the Muslims was actually the result of a misperception of the Muslims' condition in the Punjab, and a number of studies have already shown that Tehrik-e-Mujahidin had many other motives as well.
Based on the fighting abilities of the ethnic groups and their loyalty to the British, the army designated some groups as martial (such as Sikhs, Punjabi Muslims, the Baloch, Rajputs from Rajasthan, Jats, Dogras, Gurkhas and the Marathas) and restricted recruitment to them.
The single most numerous "class" of Indian recruits in both world wars, however, was the Punjabi Muslims
In 1939, as many as 29% of soldiers in the British Indian Army, which was split between India and Pakistan after Partition, were Punjabi Muslims, mostly from Pakistani Punjab.
Punjabi people are the ethnic majority in the Punjab region of Pakistan and Northern India accounting for 44.7% of the population in Pakistan.
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