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Amongst other cultural applications, psilocybin mushrooms are used asrecreational drugs.[2] Psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically inpre-Columbian Mexico, but claims of their widespread ancient use are largely exaggerated and shaped by modern idealization and ideology.[3]
Psilocybe cubensis grows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for the growth of the fungus. The cow usually consumes grains or grass covered with the spores ofP. cubensis, and the fungus will begin to germinate within the dung.[citation needed]
In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms,Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the followinggenera:Psilocybe (116 species),Gymnopilus (14),Panaeolus (13),Copelandia (12),Pluteus (6)Inocybe (6),Pholiotina (4) andGalerina (1).[4][5] Guzmán increased his estimate of the number of psilocybin-containingPsilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.
Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genusPsilocybe mushrooms[6]
Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[7] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored,gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in thesubtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich inhumus and plant debris.[8] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found insubtropical humid forests.[4]P. cubensis is the most commonPsilocybe in tropical areas.P. semilanceata, considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[9] is found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia and New Zealand, although it is absent from Mexico.[7] In 2023, two newPsilocybe species (Hymenogastraceae),P. ingeli andP. maluti, were described from southern Africa.[10][11]
Somebolete mushrooms, which are not closely related to any known psilocybin-containing mushroom species, have been reported to behallucinogenic mushrooms, for instance in theYunnan province inChina.[12][13] The exact species as well specific active compounds in these mushrooms are not known, although unidentifiedindolic compounds were detected byAlbert Hofmann in some boletes such asBoletus manicus.[13]
Magic mushroom composition varies from genus to genus and species to species.[17] Its principal component is psilocybin,[18] which is converted intopsilocin to produce psychoactive effects.[19][20] Besides psilocin,norpsilocin,baeocystin,norbaeocystin, andaeruginascin may also be present, which might result in anentourage effect and modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[2][17] Animal studies suggest that the effects of pure psilocybin or psilocin and psilocybin mushrooms may be different and support the possibility of such an entourage effect with psilocybin mushrooms.[2][21][22]Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.[17]
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms may be used in whole form, for example consumption of dried or fresh mushrooms, or may be turned into extracts or food products such asmushroom edibles ormushroom tea. Psilocybin-containing mushrooms and products, as well as products containing related compounds like4-AcO-DMT, may be purchased atsmart shops likepsychedelic mushroom stores in some jurisdictions. Another related psilocybin-containingfungus ismagic truffles, which are not technically mushrooms themselves but are thesclerotia ormycelium of psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms
The dose of psilocybin-containing mushrooms depends on thepsilocybin andpsilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species.[27][2][28] Psilocybin content is typically around 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight of the mushroom, with a range of 0.03% to 1.78%.[2][29][30][31][32] Psilocin is also often present in the mushrooms, with a range of 0% to 0.59%, and can be on par with or an order of magnitude lower than psilocybin levels.[29][2]Psilocybe cubensis, the most popular species, has been reported to contain 0.63% psilocybin and 0.6% psilocin, or about 1.2% of psilocybin and psilocin combined.[29] However, there is significant variation in differentP. cubensis strains.[33][34] The 'Penis Envy' strain ofP. cubensis is considered to be more potent than other strains.[33] Psilocybin levels appear to be highest inP. cyanescens and/orP. azurescens.[2][29][35]
Recreational doses of psilocybin mushrooms are typically between 1.0 and 3.5–5.0g of dry mushrooms and 10 to 50g of fresh mushrooms.[27][30] This corresponds to a dose of psilocybin of about 10 to 50mg.[30] Usual doses of the common speciesP. cubensis range around 1.0 to 2.5g, while about 2.5 to 5.0g dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose and above 5.0g is considered a heavy dose.[36] A 5.0g dose of dried mushroom is often referred to as a "heroic dose".[37] In terms of psilocybin dosing, subthreshold or microdoses are <2.5mg, low doses are 5 to 10mg, the intermediate or "good effect" dose is 20mg, and high or ego-dissolution doses are 30 to 40mg.[38][27] A 20mg dose of psilocybin is equivalent to about 100μgLSD or about 500mgmescaline.[38] With regard to psilocybin and psilocin equivalence, psilocin is about 1.4-fold morepotent than psilocybin (i.e., 1.4mg psilocybin equals about 1.0mg psilocin), which is the same difference as themolecular weights of the two compounds.[29][39][40]
Microdosing has become a popular technique for many users, which involves taking <1.0g of dried mushrooms for an experience that is not as intense or powerful, but recreationally enjoyable, or fully non-hallucinogenic, and potentially alleviating for symptoms ofdepression.[41] A microdose of psilocybin mushrooms is about 10% of a recreational dose, and may be 0.1 to 0.3g of dry mushrooms, taken up to three times per week.[42]
Table from the 2010DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated "mushroom" the least harmful drug overall and for users, and the only drug that did not get any scores for harm on others.[43]
The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process calleddephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, responsible for thepsychedelic effects.[44]Psilocybin andpsilocin create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to misuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period, the weaker the resultant effects are.[45] Psilocybin mushrooms have not been known to cause physical or psychologicaldependence (addiction).[46] The psychedelic effects appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Physical effects may occur, including nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.
As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours, depending on dose, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The first 3–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects can seem to last much longer for the user because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.[47]
Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[48] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hour after ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals ofform constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors; a sense of melting into the environment, andtrails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, can take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[48] Some users experiencesynesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[49]
As with otherpsychedelics such asLSD, the experience, or 'trip,' is strongly dependent uponset and setting.[48] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (includingdilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the same trip.[48] A negative environment could contribute to abad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of mind, they will likely experience heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people familiar with 'tripping.'[50] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis also may occur, particularly if a user ingests a large dose.[51]
The species within the most commonly foraged and ingested genus of psilocybin mushrooms, thepsilocybe, contains two primary hallucinogenic toxins;psilocybin andpsilocin.[52] Themedian lethal dose, also known as "LD50", of psilocybin is 280 mg/kg.[53]
From a toxicological profile, it would be incredibly difficult tooverdose on psilocybin mushrooms, given their primary toxin compounds. To consume such massive amounts of psilocybin, one must ingest more than1.2 kg of driedPsilocybe cubensis given 1-2% of the dried mushroom contains psilocybin.[31]
Posing a more realistic threat than a lethal overdose, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can overstimulate the5-HT2A receptors in the brain, causing acuteserotonin syndrome.[54] A 2015 study observed that a dose of 200 mg/kg psilocin induced symptoms of acute serotonin poisoning in mice.[55]
Neurotoxicity-induced fatal events are uncommon with psilocybin mushroom overdose, as most patients admitted to critical care are released from the department only requiring moderate treatment.[54] However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption of psilocybin mushrooms. In 2003, a 27-year-old man was found dead in an irrigation canal due to hypothermia. In his bedroom was found two cultivation pots of psilocybin mushrooms, but no report of toxicology was made.[56]
The use of psilocybin mushrooms by humans in religious ceremonies dating back thousands of years is contested.[57] Despite popular narratives portraying psychedelics as ancient, widespread, and primarily used byshamans for therapeutic healing, careful anthropological and historical research shows their traditional use was often limited, recent, and culturally specific, with modern Western interpretations largely shaped by idealization, tourism, and ideological agendas.[57] Reliable evidence shows that psilocybin mushrooms were used ritualistically in pre-Columbian Mexico but were otherwise rare, with most claims of ancient widespread use being exaggerated or misinterpreted.[57]
TheTassili Mushroom Figure was discovered inTassili,Algeria has been argued to provide evidence of an early psilocybin-containing mushroom cult.[58] 6,000-year-oldpictographs discovered near the Spanish town ofVillar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been argued to bePsilocybe hispanica, a hallucinogenic species native to the area. Some scholars have also interpreted archaeologicalartifacts fromMexico and the so-calledMayan "mushroom stones" ofGuatemala as evidence of ritual and ceremonial use of psychoactive mushrooms in theMayan andAztec cultures ofMesoamerica.[59]: 11
Thehallucinogenic[60] species of thePsilocybe genus have a history of use among the native peoples ofMesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, frompre-Columbian times to the present day.[61] Aztecs andMazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms when translated into English.[62]Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use ofteonanácatl by the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America after the expedition ofHernán Cortés.[63]
After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs as idolaters, and the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[64] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history, the use ofteonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[65]
The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: A man servedPsilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London'sGreen Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."[66]
In 1955,Valentina Pavlovna Wasson andR. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, even publishing an article on their experiences inLife on May 13, 1957.[67] In 1956,Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought back from Mexico asPsilocybe,[68] and in 1958,Albert Hofmann first identifiedpsilocybin andpsilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[69][70]
Sticker art andLatrinalia related to the culture of Psilocybin mushrooms. Sydney 2025
Inspired by the Wassons'Life article,Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned toHarvard in 1960, he andRichard Alpert started theHarvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and otherpsychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought to conduct research with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects onrecidivism.[71] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, below 40%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Shortly after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting thepsychedelic experience to the nascenthippiecounterculture.[72]
The popularization ofentheogens by the Wassons, Leary,Terence McKenna,Robert Anton Wilson, and many others led to an explosion in the use of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities ofPsilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources has made them one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs.
At present, psilocybin mushroom use has been reported among some groups spanning from central Mexico toOaxaca, including groups ofNahua,Mixtecs,Mixe,Mazatecs,Zapotecs, and others. Psilocybin retreats such asMycoMeditations also exist in countries like Jamaica, where psilocybin mushrooms are legal.[65] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico wasMaría Sabina,[73] who used native mushrooms, such asPsilocybe mexicana in her practice.
The legality of the cultivation, possession, and sale of psilocybin mushrooms and psilocybin and psilocin varies from country to country.
After Oregon Measure 109, in 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use. However, selling psilocybin without being licensed may still attract fines or imprisonment.[74] In 2022Colorado legalized consumption, growing, and sharing for personal use,[75] though sales are prohibited while regulations are being drafted.[76][77] Other jurisdictions in the United States where psilocybin mushrooms are decriminalized include Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan; Oakland and Santa Cruz, California; Easthampton, Somerville, Northampton, and Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Washington, DC.
Furthermore, buying spores of mushroom species containing psilocybin online in the United States is legal in all states except Georgia, Idaho and California.[78] This is because only fruiting mushrooms and mycelium contain psilocybin, a federally banned substance.[79] A technical caveat to consider, however, is that the distributed spores must not be intended to be used for cultivation, but allowed for microscopy purposes.[80]
Article 32 makes an exception for psilocybin mushroom and other wild psychotropic plants, to protect use in religious rituals in case such plants themselves were in the future added to Schedule I.
The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention... Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of thePeyote cactus nor the roots of the plantMimosa hostilis norPsilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals,mescaline,DMT, andpsilocin.
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
The dictionary definition ofmagic mushroom at Wiktionary