^ The heads of state listed here are the first and last to hold each title over time. For more information, see individual Prussian state articles (links in above History section).
^ The position ofMinisterpräsident was introduced in 1792 when Prussia was a Kingdom; the Minister-Presidents shown here are the heads of the Prussian republic.
Prussia entered the ranks of thegreat powers shortly after becoming a kingdom.[3][4] It became increasingly large and powerful in the 18th and 19th centuries. It had a major voice in European affairs under the reign ofFrederick the Great (1740–1786). At theCongress of Vienna (1814–15), which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleon's defeat, Prussia acquired rich new territories, including the coal-richRuhr. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of theNorth German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany thatJunkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more asGermans and less as Prussians.
The terms "Prussian" and "Prussianism" have often been used, especially outside Germany, to denote the militarism, military professionalism, aggressiveness, and conservatism of theJunker class of landed aristocrats in the East who dominated first Prussia and then the German Empire.
Before its abolition, the territory of theFree State of Prussia included the provinces ofEast Prussia;Brandenburg;Saxony (including much of the present-day state ofSaxony-Anhalt and parts of the state ofThuringia in Germany);Pomerania;Rhineland;Westphalia;Silesia (withoutAustrian Silesia);Schleswig-Holstein;Hanover;Hesse-Nassau; and a small detached area in the south calledHohenzollern, the ancestral home of the Prussian ruling family. The land that the Teutonic Knights occupied was flat and covered with fertile soil. The area was perfectly suited to the large-scale raising of wheat.[5] The rise of early Prussia was based on the raising and selling of wheat. Teutonic Prussia became known as the "bread basket of Western Europe" (in German,Kornkammer, or granary). The port cities which rose on the back of this wheat production included: Stettin in Pomerania (nowSzczecin, Poland); Danzig in Prussia (nowGdańsk, Poland);Riga in Livonia (now Riga, Latvia);Königsberg in Prussia (nowKaliningrad, Russia); and Memel in Prussia (nowKlaipėda, Lithuania). Wheat production and trade brought Prussia into a close relationship with theHanseatic League during the period of time from 1356 (official founding of the Hanseatic League) until the decline of the League in about 1500.
The expansion of Prussia based on its connection with theHanseatic League cut bothPoland andLithuania off from the coast of theBaltic Sea and trade abroad.[6] This meant that Poland and Lithuania would be traditional enemies of Prussia, which was still called the Teutonic Knights.[7]
Situation after the conquest in the late 13th century. Areas in purple under control of the Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights.The Teutonic Order (orange) following theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466)
TheHanseatic League officially formed in northern Europe in 1356 as a group of trading cities. This League came to hold a monopoly on all trade leaving the interior of Europe and Scandinavia and on all sailing trade in the Baltic Sea for foreign countries.[9]
In the course of theOstsiedlung (German eastward expansion) process, settlers were invited by German-speaking episcopal and secular authorities, bringing changes in the ethnic composition as well as in language, culture, and law of the eastern borders of the German lands. As a majority of these settlers were Germans,Low German became the dominant language.
The Knights of the Teutonic Order were subordinate to thepapacy and to theHoly Roman Emperor. Their initially close relationship with the Polish Crown deteriorated after they conquered Polish-controlledPomerelia andDanzig in 1308. Eventually, Poland and Lithuania, allied through theUnion of Krewo (1385), defeated the Knights in theBattle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410.
TheThirteen Years' War (1454–1466) began when thePrussian Confederation, a coalition of Hanseatic cities of western Prussia, rebelled against the Order and requested help from the Polish king,Casimir IV Jagiellon. The Teutonic Knights were forced to acknowledge the sovereignty of, and to pay tribute to Casimir IV in theSecond Peace of Thorn (1466), losing western Prussia (Royal Prussia) to Poland in the process. Pursuant to the Second Peace of Thorn, two Prussian states were established.[10][need quotation to verify]
During the period of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, mercenaries from the Holy Roman Empire were granted lands by the Order and gradually formed a new landed Prussian nobility, from which theJunkers would evolve to take a major role in the militarization of Prussia and, later, Germany.[11]
On 10 April 1525, after signing of theTreaty of Kraków, which officially ended thePolish–Teutonic War (1519–21), in themain square of the Polish capitalKraków,Albert I resigned his position asGrand Master of the Teutonic Order and received the title "Duke of Prussia" from KingZygmunt I the Old of Poland. As a symbol of vassalage, Albert received a standard with the Prussian coat of arms from the Polish king. The black Prussian eagle on the flag was augmented with a letter "S" (for Sigismundus) and had a crown placed around its neck as a symbol of submission to Poland. Albert I, a member of a cadet branch of theHouse of Hohenzollern became aLutheran Protestant and secularized the Order's Prussian territories.[12] This was the area east of the mouth of theVistula river, later sometimes called "Prussia proper". For the first time, these lands came into the hands of a branch of the Hohenzollern family, who already ruled theMargraviate of Brandenburg, since the 15th century. Furthermore, with his renunciation of the Order, Albert could now marry and produce legitimate heirs.
Brandenburg and Prussia united two generations later. In 1594Duchess Anna of Prussia, granddaughter of Albert I and daughter ofAlbert Frederick, Duke of Prussia (reigned 1568–1618), married her cousinElectorJohn Sigismund of Brandenburg. When Albert Frederick died in 1618 without male heirs, John Sigismund was granted the right of succession to the Duchy of Prussia, then still a Polish fief. From this time the Duchy of Prussia was inpersonal union with the Margraviate of Brandenburg. The resulting state, known asBrandenburg-Prussia, consisted of geographically disconnected territories in Prussia, Brandenburg, and theRhineland lands ofCleves andMark.
During theThirty Years' War (1618–1648), various armies repeatedly marched across the disconnected Hohenzollern lands, especially the occupyingSwedes. The ineffective and militarily weak ElectorGeorge William (1619–1640) fled from Berlin toKönigsberg, the historic capital of the Duchy of Prussia, in 1637. His successor,Frederick William I (1640–1688), reformed thearmy to defend the lands.
Frederick William I went toWarsaw in 1641 to renderhomage to KingWładysław IV Vasa of Poland for the Duchy of Prussia, which was still held infief from the Polish crown. In January 1656, during the first phase of theSecond Northern War (1654–1660), he received the duchyas a fief from the Swedish king who later granted him full sovereignty in theTreaty of Labiau (November 1656). In 1657 the Polish king renewed this grant in the treaties ofWehlau andBromberg. With Prussia, the BrandenburgHohenzollern dynasty now held a territory free of any feudal obligations, which constituted the basis for their later elevation to kings.
Frederick William I succeeded in organizing the electorate by establishing anabsolute monarchy in Brandenburg-Prussia, an achievement for which he became known as the "Great Elector". Above all, he emphasised the importance of a powerful military to protect the state's disconnected territories, while theEdict of Potsdam (1685) opened Brandenburg-Prussia for the immigration of Protestant refugees (especiallyHuguenots), and he established a bureaucracy to carry out state administration efficiently.[13]
On 18 January 1701, Frederick William's son, Elector Frederick III, elevated Prussia from a duchy to a kingdom and crowned himself KingFrederick I. In theCrown Treaty of 16 November 1700,Leopold I, emperor of theHoly Roman Empire, allowed Frederick only to title himself "King in Prussia", not "King of Prussia". The state of Brandenburg-Prussia became commonly known as "Prussia", although most of its territory, in Brandenburg, Pomerania, and western Germany, lay outside Prussia proper. The Prussian state grew in splendour during the reign of Frederick I, who sponsored the arts at the expense of the treasury.[14]
Frederick I was succeeded by his son,Frederick William I (1713–1740), the austere "Soldier King", who did not care for the arts but was thrifty and practical.[15] He was the main creator of the vaunted Prussian bureaucracy and the professionalised standing army, which he developed into one of the most powerful in Europe. His troopsonly briefly saw action during theGreat Northern War. In view of the size of the army in relation to the total population,Mirabeau said later: "Prussia, is not a state with an army, but an army with a state."[citation needed] Frederick William also settled more than 20,000 Protestant refugees fromSalzburg in thinly populated East Prussia, which was eventually extended to the west bank of theNeman river, and other regions. In theTreaty of Stockholm (1720), he acquired half ofSwedish Pomerania.[16]
Frederick William I died in 1740 and was succeeded by his son,Frederick II, whose accomplishments led to his reputation as "Frederick the Great".[17] As crown prince, Frederick had focused, primarily, on philosophy and the arts.[18] He was an accomplished flute player and composer. In 1740, Prussian troops crossed over the undefended border ofSilesia and rapidly conquered the region. Silesia was the richest province ofHabsburg Austria.[19] It signalled the beginning of threeSilesian Wars (1740–1763).[20] TheFirst Silesian War (1740–1742) and theSecond Silesian War (1744–1745) have, historically, been grouped together with the general European war called theWar of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).Holy Roman EmperorCharles VI had died on 20 October 1740. He was succeeded to the throne by his daughter,Maria Theresa.
By defeating the Austrian Army at theBattle of Mollwitz on 10 April 1741, Frederick succeeded in conqueringLower Silesia (the northwestern half of Silesia).[21] In the next year, 1742, he conqueredUpper Silesia (the southeastern half). Furthermore, in theThird Silesian War (part of theSeven Years' War) Frederick won a victory over Austria at theBattle of Lobositz on 1 October 1756. In spite of some victories afterward, his situation became far less comfortable the following years, as he failed in his attempts to knock Austria out of the war and was gradually reduced to a desperate defensive war. However, he never gave up and on 3 November 1760 the Prussian king won another battle, the hard-foughtBattle of Torgau. Despite being several times on the verge of defeat Frederick,allied withGreat Britain,Hanover andHesse-Kassel, was finally able to hold the whole of Silesia against a coalition ofSaxony, the Habsburg monarchy,France andRussia.[22]Voltaire, a close friend of the king, once described Frederick the Great's Prussia by saying "...it wasSparta in the morning,Athens in the afternoon."
Silesia, full of rich soils and prosperous manufacturing towns, became a vital region to Prussia, greatly increasing the nation's area, population, and wealth.[23] Success on the battleground against Austria and other powers proved Prussia's status as one of thegreat powers of Europe. The Silesian Wars began more than a century of rivalry and conflict between Prussia and Austria as the two most powerful states operating within the Holy Roman Empire (although both had extensive territory outside the empire).[24] In 1744, theCounty of East Frisia fell to Prussia following the extinction of its rulingCirksena dynasty.
In the last 23 years of his reign until 1786, Frederick II, who understood himself as the "first servant of the state", promoted the development of Prussian areas such as theOderbruch. At the same time he built up Prussia's military power and participated in theFirst Partition of Poland with Austria and Russia in 1772, an act that geographically connected the Brandenburg territories with those of Prussia proper. The partition also added PolishRoyal Prussia to the kingdom, allowing Frederick to re-style himself Kingof Prussia. During this period, he also opened Prussia's borders to immigrants fleeing from religious persecution in other parts of Europe, such as theHuguenots. Prussia became a safe haven in much the same way that the United States welcomed immigrants seeking freedom in the 19th century.[25]
Frederick the Great (reigned 1740–1786) practisedenlightened absolutism. He built the world's best army, and usually won his many wars. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice.[26] He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's Germangymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. ThePrussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States.[25]
Prussia took a leading part in theFrench Revolutionary Wars, but remained quiet for more than a decade because of thePeace of Basel of 1795, only to go once more to war with France in 1806 as negotiations with that country over the allocation of the spheres of influence in Germany failed. Prussia suffered a devastating defeat againstNapoleon's troops in theBattle of Jena-Auerstedt, leading Frederick William III and his family to flee temporarily toMemel. Under theTreaties of Tilsit in 1807, the state lost about one-third of its area, including the areas gained from the second and thirdPartitions of Poland, which now fell to theDuchy of Warsaw. Beyond that, the king was obliged to pay a large indemnity, to cap his army at 42,000 men, and to let the French garrison troops throughout Prussia, effectively making the kingdom a French satellite.[28]
In response to this defeat, reformers such asStein andHardenberg set about modernising the Prussian state. Among their reforms were the liberation of peasants fromserfdom, theEmancipation of Jews and making full citizens of them. The school system was rearranged, and in 1818 free trade was introduced. The process of army reform ended in 1813 with the introduction of compulsory military service for men.[29] By 1813, Prussia could mobilize almost 300,000 soldiers, more than half of which were conscripts of theLandwehr of variable quality. The rest consisted of regular soldiers that were deemed excellent by most observers, and very determined to repair the humiliation of 1806.
After thedefeat of Napoleon in Russia, Prussia quit its alliance with France and took part in theSixth Coalition during the "Wars of Liberation" (Befreiungskriege) against the French occupation. Prussian troops under MarshalGebhard Leberecht von Blücher contributed crucially (alongside the British and Dutch) to the final victory over Napoleon at theBattle of Waterloo of June 1815. Prussia's reward in 1815 at theCongress of Vienna was the recovery of her lost territories, as well as the whole of theRhineland,Westphalia, 40% ofSaxony and some other territories. These western lands were of vital importance because they included theRuhr region, the centre of Germany's fledgling industrialisation, especially in the arms industry. These territorial gains also meant the doubling of Prussia's population. In exchange, Prussia withdrew from areas of central Poland to allow the creation ofCongress Poland under Russian sovereignty.[28] In 1815 Prussia became part of theGerman Confederation.
The first half of the 19th century saw a prolonged struggle in Germany between liberals, who wanted a united, federal Germany under a democratic constitution, andconservatives, who wanted to maintain Germany as a patchwork of independent, monarchical states with Prussia andAustria competing for influence. One small movement that signalled a desire for German unification in this period was theBurschenschaft student movement, by students who encouraged the use of the black-red-gold flag, discussions of a unified German nation, and a progressive, liberal political system. Because of Prussia's size and economic importance, smaller states began to join its free trade area in the 1820s. Prussia benefited greatly from the creation in 1834 of the German Customs Union (Zollverein), which included most German states but excluded Austria.[27]
The Frankfurt Parliament was forced to dissolve in 1849, and Frederick William issued aconstitution by his own authority in 1850. This conservative document provided for a two-house parliament, theLandtag of Prussia. The lower house, orPrussian House of Representatives was elected by all males over the age of 25. They were divided intothree classes whose votes were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid. In one typical election, the first class (with those who paid the most in taxes) included 4% of voters and the third class (with those who paid the least) had 82%, yet each group chose the same number of electors.[31] The system but assured dominance by the more well-to-do men of the population. The upper house, thePrussian House of Lords, was appointed by the king. He retained full executive authority, and ministers were responsible only to him. As a result, the grip of the landowning classes, the Junkers, remained unbroken, especially in the eastern provinces.[32] The constitution nevertheless contained a number of liberal elements such as the introduction of jury courts and a catalog of fundamental rights that included freedom of religion, speech and the press.[33]
In 1862, KingWilhelm I appointedOtto von Bismarck asMinister President of Prussia. Bismarck was determined to defeat both the liberals and conservatives and increase Prussian supremacy and influence among the German states. There has been much debate as to whether Bismarck actually planned to create a united Germany when he set out on this journey, or whether he simply took advantage of the circumstances that fell into place. Bismarck curried support from large sections of the people by promising to lead the fight for greater German unification. He successfully guided Prussia through three wars, which unified Germany and brought William the position ofGerman Emperor.[34]
The Kingdom ofDenmark was at the time in personal union with the Duchies ofSchleswig andHolstein, both of which had close ties with each other, although only Holstein was part of theGerman Confederation. When the Danish government tried to integrate Schleswig, but not Holstein, into the Danish state, Prussia led the German Confederation against Denmark in theFirst War of Schleswig (1848–1851). Because Russia supported Austria, Prussia also conceded predominance in the German Confederation to Austria in thePunctation of Olmütz in 1850, resulting in a return to the status quo.
In 1863, Denmark introduced a shared constitution for Denmark and Schleswig. This led to conflict with the German Confederation, which authorised the occupation of Holstein by the Confederation, from which Danish forces withdrew. In 1864, Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border between Holstein and Schleswig initiating theSecond War of Schleswig. The Austro-Prussian forces defeated the Danes, who surrendered both territories. In the resultingGastein Convention of 1865 Prussia took over the administration of Schleswig while Austria assumed that of Holstein.[35]
Bismarck realised that the dual administration of Schleswig and Holstein was only a temporary solution, and tensions rose between Prussia and Austria. The struggle for supremacy in Germany then led to theAustro-Prussian War (1866), triggered by the dispute over Schleswig and Holstein, with Bismarck using proposed injustices as thereason for war.
On the Austrian side stood the south German states (includingBavaria andWürttemberg), some central German states (includingSaxony), andHanover in the north. On the side of Prussia wereItaly, most north German states, and some smaller central German states. Eventually, the better-armed Prussian troops won the crucial victory at theBattle of Königgrätz underHelmuth von Moltke the Elder. The century-long struggle between Berlin and Vienna for the dominance of Germany was now over. As a sideshow in this war, Prussia defeated Hanover in theBattle of Langensalza (1866). While Hanover hoped in vain for help from Britain (as they had previously been in personal union), Britain stayed out of a confrontation with a continental great power and Prussia satisfied its desire for merging the once separate territories and gaining strong economic and strategic power, particularly from the full access to the resources of the Ruhr.[36]
Bismarck desired Austria as an ally in the future, and so he declined to annex any Austrian territory. But in thePeace of Prague in 1866, Prussia annexed four of Austria's allies in northern and central Germany – Hanover,Hesse-Kassel,Nassau andFrankfurt. Prussia also won full control ofSchleswig-Holstein. As a result of these territorial gains, Prussia now stretched uninterrupted across the northern two-thirds of Germany and contained two-thirds of Germany's population. The German Confederation was dissolved, and Prussia impelled the 21 states north of theMain river into forming theNorth German Confederation.
Prussia was the dominant state in the new confederation, as the kingdom comprised almost four-fifths of the new state's territory and population. Prussia's near-total control over the confederation was secured in theconstitution drafted for it by Bismarck in 1867. Executive power was held by apresident, assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The presidency was a hereditary office of theHohenzollern rulers of Prussia. There was also a two-house parliament. The lower house, orReichstag (Diet), was elected by universal malesuffrage. The upper house, orBundesrat (Federal Council) was appointed by the state governments. The Bundesrat was, in practice, the stronger chamber. Prussia had 17 of 43 votes, and could easily control proceedings through alliances with the other states.
As a result of the peace negotiations, the states south of the Main remained theoretically independent, but received the (compulsory) protection of Prussia. Additionally, mutual defence treaties were concluded. However, the existence of these treaties was kept secret until Bismarck made them public in 1867 when France tried toacquire Luxembourg.
The controversy with theSecond French Empire over the candidacy ofLeopold, Prince of Hohenzollern to the Spanish throne was escalated both by France and Bismarck. With hisEms Dispatch, Bismarck took advantage of an incident in which the French ambassador had approached William. The government ofNapoleon III, expecting another civil war among the German states, declared war against Prussia, continuingFranco-German enmity. However, honouring their treaties, the German states joined forces and quickly defeated France in theFranco-Prussian War in 1870. Following victory under Bismarck's and Prussia's leadership,Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, which had remained outside the North German Confederation, accepted incorporation into a unitedGerman Empire.
The empire was a "Lesser German" solution (in German, "kleindeutsche Lösung") to the question of uniting all German-speaking peoples into one state, because it excluded Austria, which remained connected toHungary and whose territories included non-German populations. On 18 January 1871 (the 170th anniversary of the coronation of KingFrederick I), William wasproclaimed "GermanEmperor" (not "Emperor of Germany") in theHall of Mirrors atVersailles outside Paris, whilethe French capital was still under siege.
The two decades after theunification of Germany were the peak of Prussia's fortunes, but the seeds for potential strife were built into the Prusso-German political system.
TheConstitution of the German Empire was a version of the North German Confederation's constitution. Officially, the German Empire was a federal state. In practice, Prussia overshadowed the rest of the empire. Prussia included three-fifths of the German territory and two-thirds of its population. TheImperial German Army was, in practice, an enlarged Prussian army, although the other kingdoms (Bavaria,Saxony andWürttemberg) retained their own small armies, coming under Imperial control in wartime. The imperial crown was a hereditary office of the House of Hohenzollern, the royal house of Prussia. The Minister President of Prussia was, except for two brief periods (January–November 1873 and 1892–94), alsoimperial chancellor. But the empire itself had no right to collect taxes directly from its subjects; the only incomes fully under federal control were the customs duties, common excise duties, and the revenue from postal and telegraph services. While all men above age 25 were eligible to vote in imperial elections, Prussia retained its restrictive three-class voting system. This effectively required the king/emperor and prime minister/chancellor to seek majorities from legislatures elected by two different franchises. In both the kingdom and the empire, the original constituencies were never redrawn to reflect changes in population, meaning that rural areas were grossly overrepresented by the turn of the 20th century.
As a result, Prussia and the German Empire were something of a paradox. Bismarck knew that his new German Empire was now a colossus and economically and militarily dominant in Europe; Britain was still dominant in finance, trade and at sea. He declared Germany a "satisfied" power, using his talents to preserve peace, for example at theCongress of Berlin. Bismarck did not set up his own party. He had mixed success in some of his domestic policies. His anti-CatholicKulturkampf inside Prussia (and not the wider German state) was a failure. He ended his support for the anticlericalLiberals and worked instead with the CatholicCentre Party. He tried to destroy the socialist movement, with limited success. The large Polish population resistedGermanisation.[37]
Frederick III became emperor in March 1888, after the death of his father, but he died of cancer only 99 days later.
At age 29, Wilhelm became KaiserWilhelm II after a difficult youth and conflicts with his British motherVictoria, Princess Royal. He turned out to be a man of limited experience, narrow and reactionary views, poor judgment, and occasional bad temper, which alienated former friends and allies.
Prussia nationalised its railways in the 1880s in an effort both to lower rates on freight service and to equalise those rates among shippers. Instead of lowering rates as far as possible, the government ran the railways as a profit-making endeavour, and the railway profits became a major source of revenue for the state. The nationalisation of the railways slowed the economic development of Prussia because the state favoured the relatively backward agricultural areas in its railway building. Moreover, the railway surpluses substituted for the development of an adequate tax system.[38]
Because of theGerman Revolution of 1918, Wilhelm II abdicated as German Emperor and King of Prussia. Prussia was proclaimed a "Free State" (i.e. a republic, German:Freistaat) within the newWeimar Republic and in 1920 received a democraticconstitution.
The German government seriously considered breaking up Prussia into smaller states, but eventually traditionalist sentiment prevailed and Prussia became by far the largest state of the Weimar Republic, comprising 60% of its territory. With the abolition of the older Prussian franchise, it became a stronghold of the left. Its incorporation of "Red Berlin" and the industrialised Ruhr Area, both with working-class majorities, ensured left-wing dominance.[39]
From 1919 to 1932, Prussia was governed by a coalition of theSocial Democrats,Catholic Centre andGerman Democrats; from 1921 to 1925, coalition governments included theGerman People's Party. Unlike in other states of the German Reich, majority rule by democratic parties in Prussia was never endangered. Nevertheless, in East Prussia and some rural areas, theNazi Party ofAdolf Hitler gained more and more influence and popular support, especially from the lower middle class starting in 1930. Except for CatholicUpper Silesia, the Nazi Party in 1932 became the largest party in most parts of the Free State of Prussia. However, the democratic parties in coalition remained a majority, whileCommunists and Nazis were in the opposition.[40]
The East PrussianOtto Braun, who was Prussian minister-president almost continuously from 1920 to 1932, is considered one of the most capable Social Democrats in history. He implemented several trend-setting reforms together with his minister of the interior,Carl Severing, which were also models for the laterFederal Republic of Germany. For instance, a Prussian minister-president could be forced out of office only if there was a "positive majority" for a potential successor. This concept, known as theconstructive vote of no confidence, was carried over into theBasic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. Most historians regard the Prussian government during this time as far more successful than that of Germany as a whole.[41]
In contrast to its pre-war authoritarianism, Prussia was a pillar of democracy in the Weimar Republic. This system was destroyed by thePreußenschlag ("Prussian coup") of Reich ChancellorFranz von Papen. In thiscoup d'état, the government of the Reich deposed the Prussian government on 20 July 1932, under the pretext that the latter had lost control of public order in Prussia (during theBloody Sunday ofAltona, Hamburg, which was still part of Prussia at that time) and by using fabricated evidence that the Social Democrats and the Communists were planning a joint "putsch". The Defence Minister GeneralKurt von Schleicher, who was the prime mover behind the coup, manufactured evidence that the Prussian police under Braun's orders were favouring the CommunistRotfrontkämpferbund in street clashes with theSA as part of an alleged plan to foment a Marxist revolution, which he used to get an emergency decree from PresidentPaul von Hindenburg imposingReich control on Prussia.[42] Papen appointed himself Reich commissioner for Prussia and took control of the government. ThePreußenschlag made it easier, only half a year later, for Hitler to take power decisively in Germany, since he had the whole apparatus of the Prussian government, including the police, at his disposal.[43]
After the appointment of Hitler as the new chancellor, the Nazis used the absence of Franz von Papen as an opportunity to appointHermann Göring federal commissioner for the Prussian ministry of the interior. TheReichstag election of 5 March 1933 strengthened the position of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or "Nazi" Party), although they did not achieve an absolute majority.[44]
TheReichstag building having beenset on fire a few weeks earlier on 27 February, a newReichstag was opened in theGarrison Church ofPotsdam on 21 March 1933 in the presence of President Paul von Hindenburg. In a propaganda-filled meeting between Hitler and the Nazi Party, the "marriage of old Prussia with young Germany" was celebrated, to win over the Prussian monarchists, conservatives and nationalists and induce them into supporting and subsequently voting in favor of theEnabling Act of 1933.
In the centralised state created by the Nazis in the "Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich" ("Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reichs", 30 January 1934) and the "Law on Reich Governors" ("Reichsstatthaltergesetz", 30 January 1935) the states were dissolved, in fact if not in law. The statelandtage were abolished and the state governments were now controlled byReichsstatthaltern (Reich Governors) who were appointed by the chancellor. Parallel to that, the organisation of the party into districts (Gaue) gained increasing importance, as the official in charge of aGau (the head of which was called aGauleiter) was again appointed by the chancellor who was at the same time chief of the Nazi Party.
This centralising policy went even further in Prussia. From 1934 to 1945, almost all ministries were merged and only a few departments were able to maintain their independence.Hitler himself became formally the governor of Prussia. However, his functions were exercised by Hermann Göring as Prussian prime minister.
As provided for in the "Greater Hamburg Act" ("Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz"), certain exchanges of territory took place. Prussia was extended on 1 April 1937, for instance, by the incorporation of the Free and Hanseatic City ofLübeck.
The Prussian lands transferred to Poland after the Treaty of Versailles were re-annexed duringWorld War II. However, most of this territory was not reintegrated back into Prussia but assigned to separateGaue ofDanzig-West Prussia andWartheland during much of the duration of the war.
As part of their wartime goals, the Western allies sought theabolition of Prussia.Stalin was initially content to retain the name, Russians having a different historical view of their neighbour and sometime former ally. Nonetheless, by Law No. 46, which was accepted and implemented by theAllied Control Council on 25 February 1947, Prussia was officially proclaimed to be dissolved.[45]
One year later, in 1957, thePrussian Cultural Heritage Foundation was established and implemented by federal statutes in West Germany in response to a ruling from theFederal Constitutional Court of Germany. The fundamental goal of this institution is protecting the cultural legacy of Prussia. As of 2021, it continues to operate from its headquarters in Berlin.
In the mid-16th century, themargraves of Brandenburg had become highly dependent on the estates (representing counts, lords, knights, and towns, but not prelates, owing to theProtestant Reformation in 1538).[46] The margraviate's liabilities and tax income as well as the margrave's finances were in the hands of theKreditwerk, an institution not controlled by the elector, and of theGroßer Ausschuß (Great Committee) of the estates.[47] This was because of concessions made byElector Joachim II in 1541 in return for financial aid by the estates; however, theKreditwerk went bankrupt between 1618 and 1625.[47] The margraves further had to yield to the veto of the estates in all issues concerning the "better or worse of the country", in all legal commitments, and in all issues concerning pawn or sale of the elector's real property.[47]
To reduce the influence of the estates, in 1604,Joachim Frederick created a council calledGeheimer Rat für die Kurmark (Privy Council for the Electorate), which instead of the estates would function as the supreme advisory council for the elector.[47] While the council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651, owing to theThirty Years' War[47] (1618–1648)
Until after theThirty Years' War, the various territories of Brandenburg-Prussia remained politically independent from each other,[46] connected only by the common feudal superior.[48]Frederick William (ruled 1640–1688), who envisioned the transformation of thepersonal union into areal union,[48] started to centralise the Brandenburg-Prussian government with an attempt to establish theGeheimer Rat as a central authority for all territories in 1651, but this project proved unfeasible.[49] Instead, the elector continued to appoint a governor (Kurfürstlicher Rat) for each territory, who in most cases was a member of theGeheimer Rat.[49] The most powerful institution in the territories remained the governments of the estates (Landständische Regierung, namedOberratsstube in Prussia andGeheime Landesregierung in Mark and Cleves), which were the highest government agencies regarding jurisdiction, finances and administration.[49] The elector attempted to balance the estates' governments by creatingAmtskammer chambers to administer and coordinate the elector's domains, tax income and privileges.[49] Such chambers were introduced in Brandenburg in 1652, in Cleves and Mark in 1653, in Pomerania in 1654, in Prussia in 1661 and in Magdeburg in 1680.[49] Also in 1680, theKreditwerk came under the aegis of the elector.[50]
Frederick William I's excise tax (Akzise), which from 1667 replaced the property tax raised in Brandenburg for Brandenburg-Prussia's standing army with the estates' consent, was raised by the elector without consultation with the estates.[50] The conclusion of theSecond Northern War of 1655–1660 had strengthened the elector politically, enabling him to reform the constitution of Cleves and Mark in 1660 and 1661 to introduce officials loyal to him and independent of the local estates.[50] In the Duchy of Prussia he confirmed the traditional privileges of thePrussian estates in 1663,[50] but the latter accepted the caveat that these privileges were not to be used to interfere with the exertion of the elector's sovereignty.[49] As in Brandenburg, Frederick William ignored the privilege of the Prussian estates to confirm or veto taxes raised by the elector: while in 1656, anAkzise was raised with the estates' consent, the elector by force collected taxes not approved by the Prussian estates for the first time in 1674.[49] From 1704 the Prussian estatesde facto relinquished their right to approve the elector's taxes while formally still entitled to do so.[49] In 1682 the elector introduced anAkzise to Pomerania and in 1688 to Magdeburg,[49] while in Cleves and Mark anAkzise was introduced only between 1716 and 1720. Owing to Frederick William I's reforms, the state income increased threefold during his reign, and the tax burden per subject reached a level twice as high as in France.[50]
Under the rule ofFrederick III (I) (reign: 1688–1713), the Brandenburg Prussian territories werede facto reduced to provinces of the monarchy.[48] Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, but his firstborn son Frederick III (I), with theemperor's backing, succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on theHouse Treaty of Gera of 1599, which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories.[51] In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was established, calledGeheime Hofkammer (from 1713:Generalfinanzdirektorium). This chamber functioned as a superior agency of the territories'Amtskammer chambers.[52] TheGeneral War Commissariat (Generalkriegskommissariat) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the localKriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but before 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks.[52]
Unlike its authoritarian pre-1918 predecessor, Prussia from 1918 to 1932 was a promising democracy within Germany. The abolition of the political power of the aristocracy transformed Prussia into a region strongly dominated by the left wing of the political spectrum, with "Red Berlin" and the industrial centre of theRuhr Area exerting major influence. During this period a coalition of centre-left parties ruled, predominantly under the leadership (1920–1932) of East PrussianSocial DemocratOtto Braun. While in office Braun implemented several reforms (together with his Minister of the Interior,Carl Severing) that became models for the later Federal Republic of Germany. For instance, a Prussian prime minister could only be forced out of office if there was a "positive majority" for a potential successor. This concept, known as theconstructive vote of no confidence, became part of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany. Historians regard the Prussian government during the 1920s as far more successful than that of Germany as a whole.[54]
Ethnic structure of the eastern regions of Prussia between 1817 and 1823
In 1871, Prussia's population numbered 24.69 million, accounting for 60% of theGerman Empire's population.[55] The population grew rapidly from 45 million in 1880 to 56 million in 1900, thanks to declining mortality, even as birth rates declined. About 6 million Germans, primarily young families, migrated to the United States, especially the mid-western farming regions. Their place in agriculture was often taken by young Polish farm workers. In addition, large numbers of Polish miners moved to Upper Silesia and many Germans and Poles moved to industrial jobs in the fast-growing cities especially in the Rhineland and Westphalia.[56][57] In 1910, the population had increased to 40.17 million (62% of the Empire's population).[55] In 1914, Prussia had an area of 354,490 km2. In May 1939, Prussia had an area of 297,007 km2 and a population of 41,915,040 inhabitants.
Much of religious life was often conventional and superficial by any normal, human standard. The state and the bureaucracy kept their distance, preferring to spoon-feed the churches and treat them like children. They saw the churches as channels for education, as a means of instilling morality and obedience, or for propagating useful things, just like bee-keeping or potato-farming.[60]
After 1814, Prussia contained millions of Catholics in the west and in the east. There were substantial populations in theRhineland, parts ofWestphalia, eastern parts ofSilesia,West Prussia,Ermland and theProvince of Posen.[61] Communities in Poland were often ethnicallyPolish, although this is not the case of eastern Silesia as the majority of Catholics there were German. During the 19th-centuryKulturkampf, Prussian Catholics were forbidden from fulfilling any official functions for the state and were largely distrusted.
Prussia contained a relatively large Jewish community, which was mostly concentrated in large urban areas. According to the 1880 census, it was the biggest one in Germany with 363,790 individuals.
In 1925, 64.9% of the Prussian population was Protestant, 31.3% was Catholic, 1.1% was Jewish, 2.7% was placed in other religious categories.[62]
The area ofGreater Poland, where the Polish nation had originated, became theProvince of Posen after thePartitions of Poland. Poles in this Polish-majority province (62% Polish, 38% German) resisted German rule. Also, the southeast portion of Silesia (Upper Silesia) had a Polish majority. But Catholics and Jews did not have equal status with Protestants.[63]
As a result of theTreaty of Versailles in 1919, theSecond Polish Republic was granted not only these two areas, but also areas with a German majority in the province of West Prussia. AfterWorld War II, East Prussia, most of Pomerania and Silesia, and the eastern part of Brandenburg were either annexed by the Soviet Union or given to Poland, and theGerman-speaking populationsforcibly expelled.
The German states in the 19th century were world leaders in prestigious education and Prussia set the pace.[64][65] For boys free public education was widely available, and the gymnasium system for elite students was highly professionalized. The modern university system emerged from the 19th century German universities, especially Friedrich Wilhelm University (now namedHumboldt University of Berlin). It pioneered the model of the research university with well-defined career tracks for professors.[66] The United States, for example, paid close attention to German models. Families focused on educating their sons. The traditional schooling for girls was generally provided by mothers and governesses. Elite families increasingly favoured Catholic convent boarding schools for their daughters. Prussia's Kulturkampf laws in the 1870s limited Catholic schools thus providing an opening for a large number of new private schools for girls.[67]
TheGerman states on the former territory of the Free State of Prussia are successor states to Prussia in legal terms, particularly in terms of constitutional andinternational law. For example, the state ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia is bound to theconcordat that the Free State of Prussia concluded with theHoly See.[68][69]
Despite its dissolution in 1947, many aspects of Prussia have been preserved to this day in everyday life, inculture, insport and even in names.
In the federal government according to the prevailing view, theFederal Republic of Germany as a subject of international law is identical to the federal state initiated and dominated by Prussia, which was founded in 1867 under the name of theNorth German Confederation and expanded into theGerman Empire in 1871.
Prussia's capitalBerlin also became the capital of the newly founded empire in 1871. The capital city resolution of 1991, which designated Berlin as the federal capital of the reunified Germany, the "Berlin Republic", stands in this tradition. Several federal institutions use buildings from former Prussian institutions, for example theBundesrat uses the Prussian House of Lords building. The Federal President has his first official residence in Bellevue Palace, the first classical building in Prussia.[70] As the central shield of the Reich coat of arms, the Prussian state coat of arms is depicted in the gable above the main entrance to theReichstag building.
The Prussian war award of theIron Cross is, in a modified form, the symbol of theBundeswehr.
In the tradition of the 1st Guards Regiment on Foot, which was introduced in 1806 as the personal regiment of the King of Prussia, the guard battalion at the Federal Ministry of Defense has followed.
The Bundeswehr's Great Tattoo, played particularly when bidding farewell toFederal Presidents,Chancellors, Federal Defense Ministers and senior military officers, is largely composed of traditional elements of Prussian military music.
The police star, the emblem of theFederal Police and theFeldjäger of the Bundeswehr, is derived from the Prussian Guard Star, which went back to the eight-pointed breast star of theBlack Eagle Order. The guard star can also be found on the bell trees of the Bundeswehr music corps.[citation needed]
In 2002, the thenBrandenburg Social Minister Alwin Ziel suggested naming the planned new federal state of Berlin-Brandenburg "Prussia".
The Prussian government and administration model was decisive for a large number of political institutions at the state level and is still expressed today in terms such asMinister-president,Regierungsbezirk andLandrat. Today's North Rhine-Westphalia regional associations go back to the Prussian provincial associations.
The Rhineland Regional Association in North Rhine-Westphalia - in continuation of the tradition of the Rhine Province and its provincial association - also has the Prussian eagle in the upper part of its association coat of arms.
The states on the former territory of the Free State of Prussia are successor states to Prussia in legal terms, particularly in terms of constitutional and international law. North Rhine-Westphalia, the largest successor state to Prussia,[72] maintains its Prussian history and remembrance culture in the form of the Prussian Museums inWesel andMinden.
TheUnion of Evangelical Churches emerged from the Evangelical Church of the Union, a church association of the Old Prussian Protestant regional churches, i.e. H. of the churches whose area already belonged to Prussia before 1866
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