There are fourprovinces of Ireland:Connacht,Leinster,Munster andUlster. TheIrish word for this territorial division,cúige, meaning "fifth part", suggests that there were once five, and at timesMeath has been considered to be the fifth province. In the medieval period, however, there were often more than five. The number of provinces and their delineation fluctuated until 1610, when they were permanently set by the administration ofJames I. The provinces of Ireland no longer serve administrative or political purposes but function as historical and cultural entities.
In modernIrish, the word for province iscúige (pl.cúigí). The modern Irish term derives from theOld Irishcóiced (pl.cóiceda) which literally meant "a fifth".[1] This term appears in 8th-century law texts such asMiadslechta and in the legendary tales of theUlster Cycle where it refers to the five kingdoms of the "Pentarchy".[1] MacNeill enumerates the five earliest fifths mentioned, these comprising the kingdoms of Ulster, Connacht, Munster, Tara (North Leinster) and Dinn Riogh (South Leinster), located on the Barrow. The earliest hero tales name the Boyne as the dividing boundary between Ulster and Leinster, indicating that no province representative of Meath or Brega was yet in existence. The kings of Tara and Dinn Riogh were said to derive from the same lineage, which ruled all the Laigin.[2] In the 12th centuryLebor na Cert (Book of Rights), the term means province, seemingly having lost its fractional meaning with sevencúigeadh listed.[1] Similarly this seems to be the case in regards to titles with theAnnals of Ulster using the termrex in Chóicid (king of the fifth/province) for certain overkings.[1]
The earliest recorded mention of the major division of Ireland is in theUlster Cycle of legends, such as theTáin Bó Cúailnge.[3][4] TheTáin is set during the reign ofConchobar Mac Nessa, king ofUlster, and is believed to have happened in the 1st century.[5] In this period Ireland is said to have been divided into five independent over-kingdoms, orcuigeadh whoserí (kings) were of equal rank, not subject to a central monarchy.[3][1][5][6] Pseudo-historians called this eraAimser na Coicedach, which has been translated as: "Time of the Pentarchs";[3] "Time of the Five Fifths";[5] and "Time of the provincial kings".[6] It was also described as "the Pentarchy".[3][4]
The five provinces that made up the Pentarchy where:[3][4][5]
Ulaid (Ulster), with its royal seat atEmain Macha.
Muman (Munster), with its royal seat atTeamhair Erann.
Laigen Tuathgabair (North Leinster), with its royal seat atTara (before it became the seat of the High King).
Laigen Desgabair (South Leinster), with its royal seat atDinn Riogh.
HistoriansGeoffrey Keating andT. F. O'Rahilly differ suggesting that it is Munster, not Leinster, that formed two of the fifths.[6][7] These two fifths were called by Keating:Cuigeadh Eochaidh (eastern Munster) andCuigeadh Con Raoi (western Munster),[7] both named after their respective king.Eoin MacNeill discounts this suggestion citing theTáin Bó Cúailnge, which makes mention ofEochaidh as king of all Munster, withCu Roi simply a "great Munster hero".[3] He also cites that theTáin makes mention of the four fifths of Ireland that waged war on Ulster, which made reference to only one Munster.[3] Another reason given by MacNeill was a problem made by Keating himself. According to Keating, when the province ofMíde was being founded, it was created from portions of each province which all met at the hill of Uisnech. The boundaries given by Keating himself for the five provinces, however, meant that this would have been highly unlikely, with the boundary between his Munster fifths nowhere near this area.[3]
Pseudo-historians list 84 kings of Ireland prior to the formation of the Pentarchy. When this mythical kingship was interrupted is a matter of dispute. The Annals of Tigernach state that Ireland was divided into the five upon the slaying ofConaire Mór; however, it is suggested alternatively that it happened upon the death of Conaire's father,Eterscél Mór, the 84th king of Ireland.[6] Keating, however, suggests it occurred in the reign ofEochu Feidlech who was the 82nd king of Ireland.[6]
MacNeill claims that this division of Ireland into five is pre-historic and pre-Gaelic, describing the Pentarchy as "the oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland".[3] The notion of Ireland being divided into five permeated itself throughout Irish literature over the centuries despite what thecuigeadh representing no longer existing by the time of Saint Patrick in the 5th century.[3] By then, Ireland had become divided into seven over-kingdoms.[3]
The main body of the events in the myth ofthe Three Collas may have occurred in the late 4th to early 5th century; however, as the centuries passed the myth underwent updating and alteration.[8] The most oft quoted version of their story was written by Geoffrey Keating in the 17th century in his work theForas Feasa ar Éirinn, also known as "The History of Ireland".[8]
In it the Three Collas—Colla Menn, Colla Da Crioch, and Colla Uais—were the sons of Eocaidh Doimlén.[8] It is from them that the Airgíalla are said to descend, branching off from the rest of the Connachta.[8] The Northern and Southern Uí Néill dynasties are claimed to descend from Eocaidh's brother,Fiacha Sraibhtine.[8] According to the story the Collas were told by Fiacha's son,Muiredach Tirech, the High King of Ireland, to conquer land of their own to pass on to their descendants, directing them to wage war on the Ulaid to avenge a slight against their great-grandfatherCormac mac Airt.[8]
The Collas with their army along with a host from Connacht marched toAchaidh Leithdeircc in Fernmagh, southern Ulaid, and fought the Ulaid in seven battles over the course of seven days.[8] The host from Connacht fought the first six battles, and the Collas fought the seventh.[8] It is after this last battle that the king of Ulaid,Fergus Foga, was killed and his army routed.[8] The Collas then pursued the Ulaid east of the "Glen Righe" (the valley of theNewry River in eastern County Armagh), before returning to loot and burn the Ulaid capital, Emain Macha, after which it never again had a king.[8] They then took possession of central Ulaid spanning the modern counties of Armagh, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan and Tyrone founding the over-kingdom of Airgíalla.[8]
Early medievalcóiceda (over-kingdoms) of Ireland,c. 800
The origins of the provinces of Ireland can be traced to the medievalcóiceda (literally "fifths") or "over-kingdoms" of Ireland. There were theoretically five such over-kingdoms; however, in reality during the historical period there were always more.[9][10] At the start of the 9th century the following are listed:Airgíalla,Connachta,Laigin,Northern Uí Néill (Ailech),Southern Uí Néill (Mide),Mumu, andUlaid.[9][10] These seven over-kingdoms are again listed in the 12th-centuryLebor na Cert.[1]
Each over-kingdom was divided into smaller territorial units, the definition of which, whilst not consistent in Irish law tracts, followed a pattern of different grades.[9] In theory in the early medieval period:
A province was ruled by a "king of over-kings", known as arí ruírech. This was the highest rank allowed for in Irish law tracts despite claims by some dynasties to the symbolic title ofrí Temro (king of Tara), also known as theard rí (High King of Ireland);[1][9] The termrí ruírech was replaced at a later date by the termrí cóicid, "king of a fifth".[1]
Each province was made up of several petty-kingdoms that corresponded roughly to the size of modernIrish counties or dioceses, and were ruled by an overking known as aruirí;[9]
Each of these petty-kingdoms was further subdivided into smaller petty-kingdoms known as atúath (a group of people), equating at their largest to the size of anIrish barony.[9] These túath were ruled by a king, orrí, and were also known as arí túaithe, or "king of the people".[9] By the 10th century the rulers of atúath were no longer assumed to be kings but became referred to astigern (a lord) ortoísech (a leader) instead.[9]
This pyramid structure, however, by the later medieval period, had little validity.[9]
Paul MacCotter proposes the following structure of lordship in the 12th century: High-king of Ireland; semi-provincial king, such as Connacht, Ulaid,Desmumu; regional king, such asDál Fiatach andUí Fhiachrach Aidni; local king or king of atrícha cét, such asLeth Cathail or Cenél Guaire; andtaísig túaithe at the bottom.[11]
The kingdom ofOsraige, which had its genealogy traced back by early Irish genealogists to the Laigin, was part of Mumu from the 6th to 8th century and ruled by theCorcu Loígde dynasty.[12] By the 7th century Osraige had lost their dependence on the Corcu Loígde,[12] with the restoration of the localDál Birn dynasty. Osraige remained part of Mumu until 859 whenMáel Sechnaill I, king of theUí Néill, forced Mumu to surrender it to his overlordship.[12][13] After this situation ended it became an independent kingdom which gradually moved towards the Laigin sphere of influence as they sought to claim the Laigin kingship.[12] It was during the 9th century that Osraige, ruled byCerball mac Dúnlainge, became a major political player.[14]
Airgíalla had come under the dominance of the Ulaid;[15] however,Niall Caille, the son ofÁed Oirdnide, brought it under the hegemony of the Northern Uí Néill after defeating the combined forces of the Airgíalla and Ulaid at the battle of Leth Cam in 827.[16][17][18][19]
In 1118, the king of Connacht,Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, aided theMac Cárthaigh of south Munster in a rebellion against the rulingUí Briain dynasty.[21] This resulted in the division of Mumu into two:Tuadmumu (Thomond, meaning "north Munster") to the north under the Uí Briain; andDesmumu (Desmond, meaning "south Munster") to the south under the Mac Cárthaigh.[21] Ua Conchobair would then conquer the heartland of the Uí Briain situated around modernCounty Clare and make it part of Connacht.[21] This was to force them to acceptCormac Mac Carthaig, king of Desmumu, as the king of Mumu.[21] Despite Ua Conchobair's aid, Mac Carthaig and the Uí Briain would form an alliance to campaign against Connacht's hegemony, and by 1138 ended the threat from that kingdom.[21] The following decades would see Mumu united and repartitioned several times as the Uí Briain and Mac Cárthaigh vied for complete control.[21] In 1168, the king of Connacht,Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, ensured Mumu remained divided.[21] AfterHenry II,king of England, landed in Ireland in 1171, the Mac Cárthaigh submitted to him to prevent an Uí Briain invasion.[21] The Uí Briain eventually followed suit in submitting to Henry II.[21] The eagerness of these submissions encouraged Henry II to revive the papal grant,Laudabiliter, for Ireland.[21]
Osraige would be amongst the first Irish kingdoms to fall following theNorman invasion of Ireland in 1170, and was soon afterwards split from Leinster and made part of the royal demesne lands of Waterford.[12]
In the years following the invasion, the kingdoms of Connacht, Desmumu, Laigin, Mide, Tuadmumu, and Ulaid formed the basis for the Norman liberties of Connacht, Desmond, Leinster, Meath, Thomond and Ulster respectively.[22][23] These liberties were later subdivided into smaller ones that became the basis for the counties of Ireland.[22]
The Northern Uí Néill remained outside of Norman control, eventually absorbing the greater part of Airgíalla, which had by the end of the 12th century lost its eastern territory (afterwards known as "English Oriel" and later as Louth) to the Normans.[18] Airgíalla would eventually no longer be reckoned an over-kingdom; however, it survived in present-day County Monaghan for as long as the Gaelic order survived,[24] with the last king of Airgíalla beingHugh Roe McMahon, who reigned from 1589 until his execution in September/October 1590.
With the collapse of English control in Ireland following theBruce campaign in Ireland in 1315, and the subsequent collapse of theEarldom of Ulster, the Gaelic order had a resurgence and the Clandeboye O'Neills of the Northern Uí Néill stepped into the power vacuum in Ulster bringing it under the sovereignty of theO'Neills of Tyrone. After this they claimed for the first time the title ofrí Ulad, "king of Ulster", amalgamating their territory into one united province. This reduced the number of provinces to five—Connact, Leinster, Meath, Munster, and Ulster.
Johann Homann's 1716 map of Ireland. He incorrectly placesCounty Clare in Connacht; it had actually been returned to Munster in the immediate years after 1660.
During the reign ofMary I (1553–1558), theLord Deputy of Ireland,Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, sought to divide Ireland into six parts—Connacht, Leinster, Meath, Nether Munster, Ulster, and Upper Munster.[22] His administrative reign in Ireland, however, was cut short; and even with his reappointment byElizabeth I (1558–1603) this plan was never implemented.[22]
SirHenry Sidney during his three tenures as Lord Deputy created two presidencies headed by a Lord President to administerConnacht andMunster.[22] In an attempt to reduce the importance of the province of Munster, Sydney, using theRiver Shannon as a natural boundary took Thomond and made it into thecounty of Clare as part of the presidency of Connaught in 1569.[22] Around 1600 near the end of Elizabeth's reign, Clare was made an entirely distinct presidency of its own under theEarls of Thomond and would not return to being part of Munster until after theRestoration in 1660.[22]
The exact boundaries of the provinces of Ireland during the Tudor period changed several times, usually as a result of the creation of new counties:
County Clare upon its creation in 1569 was transferred from Munster to Connacht, and was only restored to Munster after 1660.[22]
County Longford upon its creation in 1583 was transferred from Leinster to Connacht.[22][25] It was returned to Leinster in 1608.[26]
County Cavan was created in 1584 and transferred from Connacht to Ulster.[27]
It would not be until the reign of Elizabeth's successor,James I, that Meath by 1610 would cease to be considered a province and that the provincial borders would be permanently set.[22]
In modern times politically the four provinces were referred to in the proposal ofÉire Nua ("New Ireland"), which was supported by theProvisional IRA andSinn Féin during the 1970s and early 1980s for afederalUnited Ireland. The proposal was particularly associated with theDublin-based leadership group centred onRuairí Ó Brádaigh andDáithí Ó Conaill, who were the authors of the policy.Éire Nua envisaged a united Ireland that would be created when the British withdrew from Northern Ireland, and the creation of afederal state with assemblies for each of its four historic provinces.
The songIreland's Call is used as a national anthem for sports teams representing the entire island (e.g.Ireland national rugby union team andIreland cricket team). The first verse says "We have come to answer our country's call from the four proud provinces of Ireland".
Thedinnseanchas poem namedArd Ruide (Ruide Headland) poetically describes the five kingdoms of Ireland. Below is a translation fromOld Irish:
Connacht in the west is the kingdom of learning, the seat of the greatest and wisest druids and magicians; the men of Connacht are famed for their eloquence, their handsomeness and their ability to pronounce true judgement.
Ulster in the north is the seat of battle valour, of haughtiness, strife, boasting; the men of Ulster are the fiercest warriors of all Ireland, and the queens and goddesses of Ulster are associated with battle and death.
Leinster, the eastern kingdom, is the seat of prosperity, hospitality, the importing of rich foreign wares like silk or wine; the men of Leinster are noble in speech and their women are exceptionally beautiful.
Munster in the south is the kingdom of music and the arts, of harpers, of skilledficheall players and of skilled horsemen. The fairs of Munster were the greatest in all Ireland.
The last kingdom, Meath, is the kingdom of Kingship, of stewardship, of bounty in government; in Meath lies theHill of Tara, the traditional seat of theHigh King of Ireland. The ancient earthwork of Tara is called Rath na Ríthe ('Ringfort of the Kings').
Theepic poem,AnTáin Bó Cúailnge (the Cattle Raid of Cooley) describes a war between Connacht and Ulster, and is perhaps best known forCúChulainn's single handed defence of Ulster against the champions of Connacht in turn, while his comrades were disabled by a spell.
^The population for Ulster in the table above is the sum of the 2022 preliminary census results for the three counties of Ulster in the Republic of Ireland (countiesCavan,Donegal andMonaghan; 314,076) and the 2021 census results for Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom (Northern Ireland; 1,903,100).[30] The populations for the other provinces are from the Irish 2022 preliminary census results.
^abcdefghijkFalkiner, Caesar Litton.The Counties of Ireland: An Historical Sketch of Their Origin, Constitution, and Gradual Delimitation. Royal Irish Academy.
MacCotter, Paul (2008).Medieval Ireland: Territorial, Political and Economic Divisions. Four Courts Press.ISBN978-1-84682-557-6.
MacNeill, Eoin (1920). "The Five Fifths of Ireland".Phases of Irish History. M.H. Gill & Son, Ltd..
MacNeill, John (1911).Early Irish Population-Groups: Their Nomenclature, Classification, and Chronology. Royal Irish Academy.
Schlegel, Donald M.The Origin of the Three Collas and the Fall of Emain. Vol. Clogher Record, Vol. 16, No. 2 (1998), pp. 159–181. Clogher Historical Society.
