| Proto-Malayo-Polynesian | |
|---|---|
| PMP | |
| Reconstruction of | Malayo-Polynesian |
| Region | Luzon Strait? |
Reconstructed ancestor | |
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) is thereconstructed ancestor of theMalayo-Polynesian languages, which is by far the largest branch (by current speakers) of theAustronesian language family. Proto-Malayo-Polynesian is ancestral to all Austronesian languages spoken outsideTaiwan, as well as theYami language on Taiwan'sOrchid Island. The first systematic reconstruction ofProto-Austronesian ("Uraustronesisch") byOtto Dempwolff was based on evidence from languages outside ofTaiwan, and was therefore actually the first reconstruction of what is now known as Proto-Malayo-Polynesian.[1]
The following consonants can be reconstructed for Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (Blust 2009):[2]
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Retroflex | Palatalized velar | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless obstruent | *p | *t | *c /c͡ç/ | *k | *q | |||
| Voiced obstruent | *b | *d | *z /ɟ͡ʝ/ | *D /ɖ/ | *j /ɡʲ/ | *g | ||
| Nasal | *m | *n | *ñ /ɲ/ | *ŋ | ||||
| Fricative | *s | *h | ||||||
| Lateral | *l | |||||||
| Tap ortrill | *r | *R /ʀ/ | ||||||
| Approximant | *w | *y /j/ |
The phonetic value of the reconstructed sounds *p, *b, *w, *m, *t, *d, *n, *s, *l, *r, *k, *g, *ŋ, *q, *h was as indicated by the spelling. The symbols *ñ, *y, *z, *D, *j, *R are orthographic conventions first introduced by Dyen (1947).[3] The assumed phonetic values are given in the table.
This consonant system is quite similar to the ancestralProto-Austronesian (PAN) system, but is characterized by three mergers:
The Proto-Austronesian vowels *a, *i, *u, *e (*e representing /ə/) and final diphthongs *ay, *aw, *uy, *iw remained unchanged.[2]
In a study from 2016,Roger Blench[4] has raised doubts that there was actually a single unitary Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language. Rather, Malayo-Polynesian expansion across theLuzon Strait consisted of multi-ethnic crews rapidly settling across various locations inmaritime Southeast Asia, as suggested by both archaeological and linguistic evidence. There was also a Malayo-Polynesian migration toHainan; Blench (2016) notes that bothHlai andAustronesian peoples use the foot-bracedbackstrap loom as well.
Below are selected animal and plant names in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian from theAustronesian Comparative Dictionary.[5]
| No. | Reconstruction levels | Common name | Scientific name | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 710 | PMP | a dove | Ducula spp.? | *baluj |
| 2201 | PMP | a fish | Scomberoides sp. | *daRi |
| 9215 | PMP | a fish, thefusilier | Caesionidae sp. | *sulig |
| 8519 | PMP | a fish, thesea perch, giantrockcod,giant grouper | Epinephelus spp. | *kuRapu |
| 4366 | PMP | a fish: thebig-eyed scad | Trachiurops crumenophthalmus | *qatulay |
| 251 | PMP | a fruit-bearing plant | Pisonia umbellifera | *añuliŋ |
| 1532 | PMP | a white fish, thetarpon | Megalops cyprinoides | *bulan-bulan₁ |
| 1636 | PMP | batfish | Platax spp. | *buna |
| 1635 | PMP | batfish | Platax spp. | *bunaR |
| 4379 | PMP | fish sp.:mullet sp. | Neomyxus chaptalli | *qawas |
| 4380 | PMP | fish sp.: themilkfish | Chanos chanos | *qawa₁ |
| 4378 | PMP | fish sp.: the milkfish | Chanos chanos | *qawan |
| 2095 | PMP | goatfish | Mullidae | *tiqaw₂ |
| 9513 | PMP | green jobfish | Aprion virescens | *qutun |
| 3187 | PMP | kind of striped or spotted marine fish,grouper | Epinephelus spp. | *keRteŋ |
| 9509 | PMP | needlefish | Istiophorus spp. | *saku₂ |
| 5519 | PMP | porcupine fish,puffer fish | Diodon sp. | *taRutuŋ |
| 9141 | PMP | Spanish mackerel,kingfish | Scomberomorini spp. | *taŋiRi |
| 5516 | PMP | squirrelfish | Holocentrus spp. | *taRaqan |
| 3168 | PMP | suckerfish,remora; hold on by biting | Echeneis naucrates | *kemi |
| 2492 | PMP | suckerfish, remora; hold on by biting | Echeneis naucrates | *gemi |
| 11354 | PMP | surgeonfish | Acanthurus spp. | *qapaliR |
| 11354 | PMP | surgeonfish | Acanthurus spp. | *qapaliR |
| 10662 | PMP | unicorn fish | Acanthurus unicornis | *taRaq₂ |
| 4703 | PMP | unicorn fish | Naso spp. | *qumi |
| 4699 | PMP | unicorn fish | Naso spp. | *qumay |
| No. | Reconstruction levels | Common name | Scientific name | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7001 | PMP | thegreen turtle | Chelonia mydas | *peñu |
| 9539 | PMP | kingfisher | Halcyon spp. | *sikek |
| 6845 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | theFormosan rock monkey | Macaca cyclopis | *luCuŋ |
| 3809 | PMP | fruit bat,flying fox | Pteropus spp. | *paniki |
| 9052 | PMP | civet cat and similar small predatory mammals of the familyViverridae | Viverridae | *musaŋ |
| 7811 | PMP | giant clam | Tridacna gigas | *kima |
| 4842 | PMP | thespider conch | Lambis lambis | *Raŋa |
| 8637 | PMP | the spider conch | Lambis lambis | *Raŋak |
| 8638 | PMP | the spider conch | Lambis lambis | *RaŋaR |
| 4390 | PMP | coconut crab | Birgus latro | *qayuyu |
| 4224 | PMP | a small bee | Apis indica | *qani-Ruan |
| 4283 | PMP | a small bee | Apis indica | *qari-ñuan |
| 6861 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | jungle leech | Haemadipsa spp. | *-matek |
| 6864 | PMP | jungle leech | Haemadipsa spp. | *qala-matek |
| 1726 | PMP | ringworm | Tinea imbricata | *buqeni |
| 3800 | PMP | fungus infection which produces light patches on the skin | Tinea flava orPityriasis | *panaw₁ |
| No. | Reconstruction levels | Common name | Scientific name | Proto-Malayo-Polynesian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 8724 | PMP | a cereal grass with edible seeds that are also used as beads,Job's tears | Coix lacryma-jobi | *zelay |
| 4343 | PMP | a climbing plant | Wedelia biflora | *qatay qatay₁ |
| 11282 | PMP | acycad | Cycas rumphii | *patuRu |
| 3686 | PMP | a fern | Lygodium spp. | *nituq |
| 7071 | PMP | a hairy vine | Pueraria hirsuta | *bahay |
| 4562 | PMP | a hardwood tree | Intsia bijuga,Afzelia bijuga | *qipil |
| 484 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | a lily-like plant | Crinum asiaticum | *bakuŋ₁ |
| 4206 | PMP | a palm | Oncosperma sp.? | *qanibuŋ |
| 8448 | PMP | a plant | Leea spp. | *mali |
| 3566 | PMP | a plant | Leea spp. | *mali-mali |
| 7082 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | a plant | Phragmites spp. | *qaReNu |
| 71 | PMP | a plant | Pipturus argenteus | *adamay |
| 11885 | PMP | a plant | Solanum nigrum | *hameti |
| 4039 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | a plant | Urena lobata | *puluC |
| 11265 | PMP | a plant used to stun fish | Derris elliptica | *bunat |
| 8455 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP, PEMP, POC | a plant with roots that are pounded and put in rivers to stun fish | Derris elliptica | *tuba |
| 590 | PMP | a plant yielding useful fibers | Thespesia populnea | *balu₁ |
| 1832 | PMP | a shore tree | Barringtonia spp. | *butun |
| 1275 | PMP | a shore tree | Calophyllum inophyllum | *bitaquR |
| 301 | PMP | a shore tree | Casuarina equisetifolia | *aRuhu |
| 4290 | PMP | a shore tree | Casuarina equisetifolia | *qaRuhu |
| 10441 | PMP | a shore tree with edible nuts | Terminalia catappa | *talisay |
| 5317 | PMP | a shrub | Cordyline,Dracaena | *siRi |
| 717 | PMP | a small shore tree | Hibiscus tiliaceus | *baRu |
| 12684 | PMP | a small tree bearing round, green fruit | Ehretia spp. | *kanawah |
| 8398 | PMP | a swamp palm | Nipa fruticans | *nipaq |
| 10824 | PMP | a tall forest tree which emits an unpleasant odor | Sterculia foetida | *bubuR₃ |
| 5189 | PMP | a thorny tree | Caesalpinia spp. | *sepaŋ |
| 612 | PMP | a thorny vine | Smilax spp. | *banaR₁ |
| 620 | PMP | a thorny vine | Smilax spp. | *banaw |
| 2257 | PMP | a tree | Alstonia scholaris | *ditaq |
| 3274 | PMP | a tree | Artocarpus sp. | *kulu₁ |
| 12727 | PMP | a tree | Bischofia javanica | *tuquR₂ |
| 2574 | PMP | a tree | Cordia dichotoma | *hanunaŋ |
| 4243 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | a tree | Cordia dichotoma | *qaNuNaŋ |
| 3103 | PMP | a tree | Cordia spp. | *kanawa |
| 10144 | PMP | a tree | Cordia spp. | *kendal |
| 6886 | PMP | a tree | Cynometra spp. | *namut-namut |
| 5661 | PMP | a tree | Dolichandrone spathacea | *tui₁ |
| 2198 | PMP | a tree | Dracontomelon edule | *daqu₁ |
| 2218 | PMP | a tree | Erythrina spp. | *dedap |
| 4279 | PMP | a tree | Ficus spp. | *qaRa₁ |
| 5384 | PMP | a tree | Gnetum gnemon | *suka₁ |
| 4220 | PMP | a tree | Grewia spp. | *qanilaw |
| 8451 | PMP | a tree | Inocarpus spp., possibly theTahitian chestnut:Inocarpus edulis | *gayam |
| 3097 | PMP | a tree | Murraya sp. | *kamuniŋ |
| 782 | PMP | a tree | Nauclea sp. | *baŋkal |
| 3884 | PMP | a tree | Ochrosia oppositifolia | *pauq |
| 3649 | PMP | a tree | Pterocarpus indica | *nara |
| 3648 | PMP | a tree | Pterocarpus indica | *naRah |
| 738 | PMP | a tree | Pterospermum sp. | *bayuR |
| 3126 | PMP | a tree | Schleichera trijuga | *kasambiʔ |
| 3086 | PMP | a tree | Sterculia foetida | *kalumpaŋ |
| 2239 | PMP | a tree | Trema orientalis | *deRuŋ₂ |
| 3903 | PMP | a tree | Vitex pubescens | *pa(m)pa |
| 7098 | PMP | a tree with dense clusters of red flowers, theIndian coral tree | Erythrina indica | *dapdap₁ |
| 9114 | PMP | a tree with edible fruit, and medicinal uses | Buchanania arborescens? | *balunuR |
| 3104 | PMP | a tree with fragrant flowers | Cananga odorata | *kanaŋa |
| 12774 | PMP | a tree, theChinese mahogany orPhilippine mahogany | Shorea albus | *bulah |
| 2719 | PMP | a vine | Flagellaria indica | *huaR |
| 11109 | PMP | an evergreen tree with decorative flowers | Cynometra ramiflora | *namut |
| 1046 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP, PEMP, POC | bamboo of very large diameter | Dendrocalamus sp.? | *betuŋ₁ |
| 9776 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | bamboo spp. | Bambusa spinosa? | *kawayan |
| 11263 | PMP | betel pepper | Piper betle | *bu-bulu |
| 8466 | PMP | bracket fungus | Polyporus spp. | *kulat₂ |
| 1146 | PMP | calabash tree | Crescentia spp. | *bila₁ |
| 1223 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | cane grass | Miscanthus sp. | *biRaSu |
| 10249 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | castor bean | Ricinus communis | *katawa |
| 1582 | PMP | cowrie shell | Cypraea mauritiana | *buliq₁ |
| 4358 | PMP | cucumber | Cucumis sativus | *qatimun |
| 10768 | PMP | elephant grass,miscanthus grass | Themeda gigantea | *taŋelaj |
| 1255 | PMP | fan palm | Licuala rumphii | *biRu |
| 7972 | PMP | hardwood tree with edible fruit and valuable timber | Palaquium spp. | *ñatuq |
| 7996 | PMP | indigo plant and dye | Indigofera suffruticosa andIndigofera tinctoria | *taRum |
| 7083 | PMP | kind of fruit tree | Pometia pinnata | *tawan |
| 6542 | PMP | kind ofmangrove, with bark used for dyeing | Ceriops spp. | *teŋeR |
| 11007 | PMP | mango tree and its fruit | Mangifera altissima? | *pahuq₁ |
| 8750 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | millet sp. | Setaria italica (?) | *zawa₂ |
| 1033 | PMP | millet sp., probablyfoxtail millet | Setaria italica | *betem |
| 812 | PMP | millet sp., probably foxtail millet | Setaria italica | *beteŋ₁ |
| 7254 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | mulberry tree and fruit | Morus formosensis | *taNiud |
| 11844 | PMP | new shoots ofcogon grass | Imperata cylindrica | *mimis₁ |
| 1763 | PMP | palm sp. | Corypha elata | *buri₁ |
| 3089 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | plant sp. | Diospyros discolor | *kamaya |
| 3671 | PMP | plant sp. | Donax canniformis, used as material for making baskets | *niniq₁ |
| 4614 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP, PEMP, PSHWNG, POC | rattan | Calamus sp. | *quay |
| 7169 | PMP | stinging nettle | Laportea spp. | *la-lateŋ |
| 7167 | PMP | stinging nettle | Laportea spp. | *lateŋ |
| 7183 | PMP | stinging nettle | Laportea spp. | *zalateŋ |
| 7185 | PMP | stinging nettle | Laportea spp. | *zilateŋ |
| 4204 | PMP | sugar palm | Arenga spp. | *qanahaw |
| 7953 | PMP | sugarcane | Saccharum officinarum | *tebuh₁ |
| 2055 | PMP | sugarcane | Saccharum officinarum | *tebuh₂ |
| 2399 | PMP | sword grass | Imperata cylindrica | *eRiq |
| 10161 | PMP | sword grass | Imperata cylindrica | *guRun |
| 12663 | PMP | sword grass | Imperata cylindrica | *keRiq |
| 4900 | PAN, PMP, PWMP | sword grass | Imperata cylindrica | *Riaq |
| 7486 | PMP | taro | Colocasia esculenta | *tales |
| 9775 | PMP | thecandlenut tree | Aleurites moluccanus | *kamiri |
| 9775 | PMP | the candlenut tree | Aleurites moluccanus | *kamiri |
| 12248 | PMP | theIndian cork tree | Millingtonia hortensis | *taŋga₂ |
| 11262 | PMP | theIndian tulip tree | Thespesia populnea | *banaRu |
| 3066 | PMP | thekapok tree | Bombax ceiba | *kabu-kabu |
| 3263 | PMP | tree sp. | Schoutenia ovata | *kukun |
| 5653 | PMP | tree sp. | Sesbania grandiflora | *tudiq |
| 8882 | PMP | tree with dense clusters of red flowers, theIndian coral tree | Erythrina indica | *depdep |
| 9942 | PMP | tree with edible nut, theCanarium almond (or thegalip orngari nut) | Canarium indicum[a] | *kanari |
| 4260 | PMP | tree with leaves like sandpaper | Ficus spp. | *qa(m)pelas |
| 3332 | PMP | tree with poisonous sap | Antiaris toxicaria? | *laji₁ |
| 4722 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP | tree with sticky fruits | Cordia spp. | *quNuNaŋ |
| 10888 | PMP | tree spp. | Barringtonia spp. | *putat |
| 7652 | PMP | turmeric | Curcuma longa | *kunij |
| 1601 | PAN, PMP, PWMP, PCEMP, PCMP, PEMP, PSHWNG, POC | type of slender bamboo | Schizostachyum spp. | *buluq₂ |
| 1219 | PMP | wildtaro,elephant's ear or itching taro; sexual itch | Alocasia spp. | *biRaq₁ |
| 1219 | PMP | wild taro, elephant's ear or itching taro; sexual itch | Alocasia spp. | *biRaq₁ |
| 4625 | PMP | yam | Dioscorea alata | *qubi |